Cross-cultural psychology

Last updated

Cross-cultural psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes, including both their variability and invariance, under diverse cultural conditions. [1] Through expanding research methodologies to recognize cultural variance in behavior, language, and meaning it seeks to extend and develop psychology. [2] Since psychology as an academic discipline was developed largely in North America and Europe, some psychologists became concerned that constructs and phenomena accepted as universal were not as invariant as previously assumed, especially since many attempts to replicate notable experiments in other cultures had varying success. [3] [4] Since there are questions as to whether theories dealing with central themes, such as affect, cognition, conceptions of the self, and issues such as psychopathology, anxiety, and depression, may lack external validity when "exported" to other cultural contexts, cross-cultural psychology re-examines them. It does so using methodologies designed to factor in cultural differences so as to account for cultural variance. [5] Some critics have pointed to methodological flaws in cross-cultural psychological research, and claim that serious shortcomings in the theoretical and methodological bases used impede, rather than help, the scientific search for universal principles in psychology. Cross-cultural psychologists are turning more to the study of how differences (variance) occur, rather than searching for universals in the style of physics or chemistry. [2] [4]

Contents

While cross-cultural psychology represented only a minor area of psychology prior to WWII, it began to grow in importance during the 1960s. In 1971, the interdisciplinary Society for Cross-Cultural Research (SCCR) was founded, and in 1972 the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) was established. [6] Since then, this branch of psychology has continued to expand as there has been an increasing popularity of incorporating culture and diversity into studies of numerous psychological phenomena.

Cross-cultural psychology is differentiated from (but influences and is influenced by), cultural psychology, which refers to the branch of psychology that holds that human behavior is strongly influenced by cultural differences, meaning that psychological phenomena can only be compared with each other across cultures to a limited extent. In contrast, cross-cultural psychology includes a search for possible universals in behavior and mental processes. Cross-cultural psychology "can be thought of as a type [of] research methodology, rather than an entirely separate field within psychology". [6] [7] In addition, cross-cultural psychology can be distinguished from international psychology, with the latter centering around the global expansion of psychology, especially during recent decades. Nevertheless, cross-cultural psychology, cultural psychology, and international psychology are united by a common concern for expanding psychology into a universal discipline capable of understanding psychological phenomena across cultures and in a global context.

Definitions and early work

Two definitions of the field include: "the scientific study of human behavior and its transmission, taking into account the ways in which behaviors are shaped and influenced by social and cultural forces" [8] and "the empirical study of members of various cultural groups who have had different experiences that lead to predictable and significant differences in behavior". [9] Culture, as a whole, may also be defined as "the shared way of life of a group of people." [8] In contrast to sociologists, most cross-cultural psychologists do not draw a clear dividing line between social structure and cultural belief systems.

Early work in cross-cultural psychology was suggested in Lazarus and Steinthal's journal Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft [Journal of Folk Psychology and Language Science], which began to be published in 1860. More empirically oriented research was subsequently conducted by Williams H. R. Rivers (1864–1922) who attempted to measure the intelligence and sensory acuity of indigenous people residing in the Torres Straits area, located between Australia and New Guinea. [10] The father of modern psychology, Wilhelm Wundt, published ten volumes on Völkerpsychologie (a kind of historically oriented cultural psychology), but these volumes have had only limited influence in the English-speaking world. [11] Wundt's student Franz Boas, an anthropologist at Columbia University, challenged several of his students such as Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead to study psychological phenomena in nonwestern cultures such as Japan, Samoa, and New Guinea. They emphasized the enormous cultural variability of many psychological phenomena thereby challenging psychologists to prove the cross-cultural validity of their favorite theories.

Etic v. emic perspectives

Other fields of psychology focus on how personal relationships impact human behavior; however, they fail to take into account the significant impact that culture may have on human behavior. [6] The Malinowskian dictum focuses on the idea that there is a necessity to understand the culture of a society in its own terms instead of the common search for finding universal laws that apply to all human behavior. [12] Cross-culture psychologists have used the emic/etic distinction for some time. [13] The emic approach studies behavior from within the culture, and mostly is based on one culture; the etic approach studies behavior from outside the culture system, and is based on many cultures. [14] Currently, many psychologists conducting cross-cultural research are said to use what is called a pseudoetic approach. [15] This pseudoetic approach is actually an emic based approach developed in a Western culture while being designed to work as an etic approach. [15] Irvine and Carroll brought an intelligence test to another culture without checking whether the test was measuring what it was intended to measure. This can be considered pseudoetic work because various cultures have their own concepts for intelligence. [14]

Research and applications

Self-concept on bi-culture

1122-WAS-The White House.JPG
Beijing-forbidden4.jpg
Priming with different cultural knowledge alters the way people think.

Research on how the self is construed (whether, for example, in individualistic or collectivistic terms) has been a major topic of research in cross-cultural psychology for decades. [16] [17] [18] [19] Some psychologist employed cultural priming to understand how people living with multiple cultures interpret events. [20] For example, Hung and his associates displayed a different set of culture related images to study participants, such as the U.S. White House and a Chinese temple, and then watched a clip of an individual fish swimming ahead of a group of fishes. [21] When exposed to the latter, Hong Kong participants were more likely to reason in a collectivistic way. [22] : 187  In contrast, participants who viewed Western images were more likely to give a reverse response and focus more on individual fish. [23] : 787  [24] People from bi-culture society when primed with different cultural icons, they are inclined to make cultural activated attribution. [20] : 327  Pronoun circling task, is also another cultural priming task, by asking participant consciously circling the pronoun, like "We", "us", "I", and "me", during paragraph reading. [25] [26] : 381 

Geert Hofstede and the dimensions of culture

The Dutch psychologist Geert Hofstede revolutionized the field doing worldwide research on values for IBM in the 1970s. Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is not only the springboard for one of the most active research traditions in cross-cultural psychology, but is also cited extensively in the management literature. His initial work found that cultures differ on four dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity-femininity, and individualism-collectivism. [27] Later, after The Chinese Culture Connection extended his research using indigenous Chinese materials, he added a fifth dimension - long-term orientation (originally called Confucian dynamism) - which can be found in other cultures besides China. [28] Still later, after work with Michael Minkov using data from the World Values Survey, he added a sixth dimension - indulgence versus restraint. [29] [30]

Despite its popularity, Hofstede's work has been seriously questioned by McSweeney (2002). [31] Furthermore, Berry et al. challenge some of the work of Hofstede, proposing alternative measures to assess individualism and collectivism. Indeed, the individualism-collectivism debate has itself proven to be problematic, with Sinha and Tripathi (1994) arguing that strong individualistic and collectivistic orientations may coexist in the same culture (they discuss India in this connection). [32] This has proven to be a problem with many of the various linear dimensions that are, by nature, dichotomous. Cultures are much more complex and contextually based than represent in these inflexible dimensional representations.

Counseling and clinical psychology

Cross-cultural clinical psychologists (e.g., Jefferson Fish [33] [34] [35] ) and counseling psychologists (e.g., Lawrence H. Gerstein, [36] Roy Moodley, [37] [38] and Paul Pedersen [39] [40] ) have applied principles of cross-cultural psychology to psychotherapy and counseling. Additionally, the book by Uwe P. Gielen, Juris G. Draguns, and Jefferson M. Fish titled "Principles of Multicultural Counseling and Therapy" contains numerous chapters on the application of culture in counseling. Joan D. Koss-Chioino, Louise Baca, and Luis A. Varrga are all listed in this book (in the chapter titled "Group Therapy with Mexican American and Mexican Adolescents: Focus on Culture) as working with Latinos in their way of therapy that is known to be culturally sensitive. For example, in their therapy they create a "fourth life space" that allows children/adolescents to reflect on difficulties they may be facing. [34] Furthermore, in the book it is stated that various countries are now starting to incorporate multicultural interventions into their counseling practices. The countries listed included: Malaysia, Kuwait, China, Israel, Australia, and Serbia. [34] Lastly, in the chapter titled "Multiculturalism and School Counseling: Creating Relevant Comprehensive Guidance and Counseling Programs," Hardin L. K. Coleman, and Jennifer J. Lindwall propose a way to incorporate cultural components into school counseling programs. Specifically, they emphasize the necessity of the counselor's having multicultural competence and the ability to apply this knowledge when working with persons of varying ethnic backgrounds. [34] In addition, several recent volumes have reviewed the state of counseling psychology and psychotherapy around the world while discussing cross-cultural similarities and differences in counseling practices. [36] [37] [38]

Five-factor model of personality

Can the traits defined by American psychologists be generalized across people from different countries? In response to this questions, cross-cultural psychologists have often questioned how to compare traits across cultures. To examine this question, lexical studies measuring personality factors using trait adjectives from various languages have been conducted. [41] Over time these studies have concluded that the factors of Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness almost always appear, yet Neuroticism and Openness to Experience sometimes do not. Therefore, it is difficult to determine whether these traits are nonexistent in certain cultures or whether different sets of adjectives must be used to measure them. However, many researches believe that the FFM is a universal structure and can be used within cross-cultural research and research studies in general. However, other cultures may include even more significant traits that go beyond those traits included in the FFM. [41]

Emotion judgments

Researchers have often wondered whether people across various cultures interpret emotions in similar ways. In the field of cross-cultural psychology, Paul Ekman has conducted research examining judgments in facial expression cross-culturally. One of his studies included participants from ten different cultures who were required to indicate emotions and the intensity of each emotion based upon picture of persons expressing various emotions. The results of the study showed that there was agreement across cultures as to which emotions were the most and second most intense. [42] These findings provide support for the view that there are at least some universal facial expressions of emotion. Nevertheless, it is also important to note that in the study there were differences in the way in which participants across cultures rated emotion intensity. [42]

While there are said to be universally recognized facial expressions, Yueqin Huang and his colleagues performed research that looked at how a culture may apply different labels to certain expressions of emotions. Huang et al. (2001) in particular compared Chinese versus American perceptions of facial emotion expressions. They found that the Chinese participants were not as skilled as the American participants at perceiving the universal emotional expressions of people coming from a culture different than their own. [43] These findings show support for the notion that cross-cultural differences exist in emotional judgement. Huang et al. (2001) suggest that Asians may use different cues on the face to interpret the emotional expression. Also, because every culture has different values and norms, it is important to analyze those differences in order to gain a better understanding as to why certain emotions are either interpreted differently or not at all. For example, as Huang et al. (2001) point out, it is common for 'negative emotions' not to be welcomed in many Asian cultures. This important information may be critical in recognizing the cross-cultural difference between Asian and American judgments of the universal emotional expressions. [43]

Differences in subjective well-being

The term "subjective well-being" is frequently used throughout psychology research and is made up of three main parts: 1) life satisfaction (a cognitive evaluation of one's overall life), 2) the presence of positive emotional experiences, and 3) the absence of negative emotional experiences. [44] Across cultures people may have differing opinions on the "ideal" level of subjective well-being. For example, Brazilians have been shown in studies to find positive emotions very desirable whereas the Chinese did not score as highly on the desire for positive emotions. [44] Consequently, when comparing subjective well-being cross-culturally it appears important to take into account how the individuals in one culture may rate one aspect differently from individuals from another culture. It is difficult to identify a universal indicator as to how much subjective well-being individuals in different societies experience over a period of time. [44] One important topic is whether individuals from individualistic or collectivistic countries are happier and rate higher on subjective well-being. Diener, Diener, and Diener, 1995, noted that individualist cultural members are found to be happier than collectivist cultural members. [45] It is also important to note that happier nations may not always be the wealthier nations. While there are strong associations between cultural average income and subjective well-being, the "richer=happier" argument is still a topic of hot debate. One factor that may contribute to this debate is that nations that are economically stable may also contain various non-materialistic features such as a more stable democratic government, better enforcement of human rights, etc. that could overall contribute to a higher subjective well-being. Therefore, it has yet to be determined whether a higher level of subjective well-being is linked to material affluence or whether it is shaped by other features that wealthy societies often possess and that may serve as intermediate links between affluence and well-being. [44]

How different cultures resolve conflict

Grossmann et al. use evidence to show how cultures differ in the ways they approach social conflict and how culture continues to be an important factor in human development even into old age. Specifically, the paper examines aging-related differences in wise reasoning among the American and Japanese cultures. Participants' responses revealed that wisdom (e.g., recognition of multiple perspectives, one's limits of personal knowledge, and the importance of compromise) increased with age among Americans, but older age was not directly associated with wiser responses amongst the Japanese participants. Furthermore, younger and middle-aged Japanese participants illustrated higher scores than Americans for resolving group conflicts. [46] Grossmann et al. found that Americans tend to emphasize individuality and solve conflict in a direct manner, while the Japanese place an emphasis on social cohesion and settle conflict more indirectly. The Japanese are motivated to maintain interpersonal harmony and avoid conflict, resolve conflict better, and are wiser earlier in their lives. Americans experience conflict gradually, which results in continuous learning about how to solve conflict and increased wisdom in their later years. The current study supported the concept that varying cultures use different methods to resolve conflict. [46]

Differences in conflict resolution across cultures can also be seen with the inclusion of a third party. These differences can be found when a third party becomes involved and provides a solution to the conflict. [47] Asian and American cultural practices play a role in the way the members of the two cultures handle conflict. A technique used by Korean-Americans may reflect Confucian values [47] while the American technique will be consistent with their individualistic and capitalistic views. Americans will have more structure in their processes which provides standards for similar situations in the future. Contrary to American ways, Korean-Americans will not have as much structure in resolving their conflicts, but more flexibility while solving a problem. For Korean-Americans, the correct way may not always be set but can usually be narrowed down to a few possible solutions.

Gender-role and gender-identity differences and similarities

Williams and Best (1990) have looked at different societies in terms of prevailing gender stereotypes, gender-linked self-perceptions, and gender roles. The authors found both universal similarities as well as differences between and within more than 30 nations. [48] The Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology also contains a review on the topic of sex, gender, and culture. One of the main findings overall was that under the topic of sex and gender, pan-cultural similarities were shown to be greater than cultural differences. [49] Furthermore, across cultures the way in which men and women relate to one another in social groups has been shown to be fairly similar. [49] Further calls have been made to examine theories of gender development as well as how culture influences the behavior of both males and females. [49]

Cross-cultural human development

This topic represents a specialized area of cross-cultural psychology and can be viewed as the study of cultural similarities and differences in developmental processes and their outcomes as expressed by behavior and mental processes in individuals and groups. As presented by Bornstein (2010), [50] Gielen and Roopnarine (2016) and Gardiner and Kosmitzki (2010), researchers in this area have examined various topics and domains of psychology (e.g., theories and methodology, socialization, families, gender roles and gender differences, the effects of immigration on identity), human development across the human life cycle in various parts of the world, children in difficult circumstances such as street children and war-traumatized adolescents, and global comparisons between, and influences on, children and adults. Because only 3.4% of the world's children live in the United States, such research is urgently needed to correct the ethnocentric presentations that can be found in many American textbooks (Gielen, 2016).

Berry et al. refer to evidence that a number of different dimensions have been found in cross-cultural comparisons of childrearing practices, including differences on the dimensions of obedience training, responsibility training, nurturance training (the degree to which a sibling will care for other siblings or for older people), achievement training, self-reliance, and autonomy; [51] [52] Moreover, the Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology Volume 2 contains an extensive chapter (The Cultural Structuring of Child Development by Charles M. Super and Sara Harkness) on cross-cultural influences on child development. They stated that three recurring topics were shown to consistently come up during their review: "how best to conceptualize variability within and across cultural settings, to characterize activities of the child's mind, and to improve methodological research in culture and development." [53]

Behavior and motivation

Behavior and motivation are broad concepts and have sparked a lot of debate on the etic vs. emic perspective. One of the current major motivational theories is self-determination theory, which has been claimed to be etic universal, or, in other words, the validatity of this theory can be empirically identified across cultures. [54] Most studies supporting this claim of cross-cultural generalizability have been focused on comparing industrialized countries in high- and middle-income regions, [55] but could not establish the global validity of this theory. Recently, some studies attempted to bridge this gap. For example, a study compared self-determination theory models predicting physical activity in diabetes patients across diverse disadvantaged populations (i.e. immigrant populations in urban Sweden and South Africa, and a population in rural Uganda) using multigroup structural equation modelling. [56] The motivational process models did not correspond entirely and the study could not provide sufficient evidence for the etic validity of self-determination theory. The authors concluded that more research is needed which is in alignment with the lack of evidence for many other psychosocial domains for which research has been limited to western, industrialised and high-income countries. [57]

Future developments

The rise of cross-cultural psychology reflects a general process of globalization in the social sciences that seeks to purify specific areas of research which have western biases. In this way, cross-cultural psychology (together with international psychology) aims to make psychology less ethnocentric in character than it has been in the past. Cross-cultural psychology is now taught at numerous universities located around the world, both as a specific content area as well as a methodological approach designed to broaden the field of psychology.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Ho, D. Y. F., & Wu, M. (2001). Introduction to cross-cultural psychology. In L. L. Adler & U. P. Gielen (Eds.), Cross-cultural topics in psychology (pp. 3–13). Westport, CT: Praeger.
  2. 1 2 Gielen, U. P., & Roopnarine, J. L. (Eds.). (2016). Childhood and adolescence: Cross-cultural perspectives and applications (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
  3. ↑ Henrich, Joseph; Heine, Steven J.; Norenzayan, Ara (June 2010). "The weirdest people in the world?" (PDF). Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 33 (2–3): 61–83. doi:10.1017/S0140525X0999152X. PMID   20550733. S2CID   219338876.
  4. 1 2 Smith, Peter B., Fischer, R., Vignoles, V. L. & Bond, M. H. (Eds.). (2013). Understanding Social Psychology Across Cultures: Engaging with others in a changing world (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
  5. ↑ Vijver, Fons van de, and Kwok Leung. Methods and Data Analysis for Cross-Cultural Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997
  6. 1 2 3 Cherry, Kendra. "What is Cross Cultural Psychology". Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
  7. ↑ Lonner, W. J. (2000). "On the growth and continuing importance of cross-cultural psychology". Eye on Psi Chi. 4 (3): 22–26. doi:10.24839/1092-0803.eye4.3.22.
  8. 1 2 Berry, J. W., & Poortinga, Y. H. (2011). Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applications (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  9. ↑ Brislin, Lonner, & Thorndike, 1973 as cited in Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Segall, M. H., & Dasen, P. R. (1992). Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  10. ↑ Jahoda, G. (1993). Crossroads between culture and mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  11. ↑ Wundt, W. (1900-1920). Völkerpsychologie (Comparative Psychology of Peoples), vols.1-10. Leipzig, Germany: Engelmann.
  12. ↑ Triandis, Harry; Roy S. Malpass; Andrew R. Davidson (1971). "Cross-Cultural Psychology". Biennial Review of Anthropology. 7: 1–84. JSTOR   2949227.
  13. ↑ Berry, John (1969). "On cross-culture comparability". International Journal of Psychology . 4 (2): 119–128. doi: 10.1080/00207596908247261 .
  14. 1 2 Berry, John (1980). Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology: Vol. 2. Methodology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. p. 11.
  15. 1 2 Triandis, H. C.; Marin, G. (1983). "Etic Plus Emic Versus Pseudoetic: A Test of a Basic Assumption of Contemporary Cross-Cultural Psychology". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 14 (4): 489–500. doi:10.1177/0022002183014004007. ISSN   0022-0221. S2CID   145471132.
  16. ↑ Triandis, Harry C.; Bontempo, Robert; Betancourt, Hector; Bond, Michael; Leung, Kwok; Brenes, Abelando; Georgas, James; Hui, C. Harry; Marin, Gerardo; Setiadi, Bernadette; Sinha, Jai B. P.; Verma, Jyoti; Spangenberg, John; Touzard, Hubert; Montmollin, Germaine de (1 December 1986). "The measurement of the etic aspects of individualism and collectivism across cultures". Australian Journal of Psychology. 38 (3): 257–267. doi:10.1080/00049538608259013.
  17. ↑ Markus, Hazel R.; Kitayama, Shinobu (April 1991). "Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation". Psychological Review. 98 (2): 224–253. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224. S2CID   13606371.
  18. ↑ Vignoles, Vivian L.; Owe, Ellinor; Becker, Maja; Smith, Peter B.; Easterbrook, Matthew J.; Brown, Rupert; González, Roberto; Didier, Nicolas; Carrasco, Diego; Cadena, Maria Paz; Lay, Siugmin; Schwartz, Seth J.; Des Rosiers, Sabrina E.; Villamar, Juan A.; Gavreliuc, Alin; Zinkeng, Martina; Kreuzbauer, Robert; Baguma, Peter; Martin, Mariana; Tatarko, Alexander; Herman, Ginette; de Sauvage, Isabelle; Courtois, Marie; Garðarsdóttir, Ragna B.; Harb, Charles; Schweiger Gallo, Inge; Prieto Gil, Paula; Lorente Clemares, Raquel; Campara, Gabriella; Nizharadze, George; Macapagal, Ma. Elizabeth J.; Jalal, Baland; Bourguignon, David; Zhang, Jianxin; Lv, Shaobo; Chybicka, Aneta; Yuki, Masaki; Zhang, Xiao; Espinosa, Agustín; Valk, Aune; Abuhamdeh, Sami; Amponsah, Benjamin; Özgen, Emre; Güner, E. Ülkü; Yamakoğlu, Nil; Chobthamkit, Phatthanakit; Pyszczynski, Tom; Kesebir, Pelin; Vargas Trujillo, Elvia; Balanta, Paola; Cendales Ayala, Boris; Koller, Silvia H.; Jaafar, Jas Laile; Gausel, Nicolay; Fischer, Ronald; Milfont, Taciano L.; Kusdil, Ersin; Çağlar, Selinay; Aldhafri, Said; Ferreira, M. Cristina; Mekonnen, Kassahun Habtamu; Wang, Qian; Fülöp, Márta; Torres, Ana; Camino, Leoncio; Lemos, Flávia Cristina Silveira; Fritsche, Immo; Möller, Bettina; Regalia, Camillo; Manzi, Claudia; Brambilla, Maria; Bond, Michael Harris (August 2016). "Beyond the 'east–west' dichotomy: Global variation in cultural models of selfhood" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 145 (8): 966–1000. doi:10.1037/xge0000175. hdl: 11693/36711 . PMID   27359126. S2CID   296518.
  19. ↑ Oyserman, Daphna (3 January 2017). "Culture Three Ways: Culture and Subcultures Within Countries". Annual Review of Psychology. 68 (1): 435–463. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033617 . PMID   27687120. S2CID   9594927.
  20. 1 2 Kitayama, Shinobu; Cohen, Dov (2007). Handbook of cultural psychology. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN   9781593857325. OCLC   560675525.
  21. ↑ Hong, Y. Y.; Chiu, C. Y.; Kung, T. M. (1997). "Bringing culture out in front: Effects of cultural meaning system activation on social cognition". Progress in Asian Social Psychology. 1: 135–146.
  22. ↑ Myers, David G. (2010). Social psychology (Tenth ed.). New York, NY. ISBN   9780073370668. OCLC   667213323.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  23. ↑ Kruglanski, Arie W.; Higgins, Edward Tory (2007). Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles. Guilford Press. ISBN   9781572309180.
  24. ↑ Hong, Ying-yi; Morris, Michael W.; Chiu, Chi-yue; Benet-Martínez, Verónica (2000). "Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition". American Psychologist. 55 (7): 709–720. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.55.7.709. ISSN   0003-066X. PMID   10916861.
  25. ↑ Oyserman, Daphna; Sorensen, Nicholas; Reber, Rolf; Chen, Sylvia Xiaohua (2009). "Connecting and separating mind-sets: Culture as situated cognition". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 97 (2): 217–235. doi:10.1037/a0015850. ISSN   1939-1315. PMID   19634972.
  26. ↑ Keith, Kenneth D. (2018-04-12). Culture across the curriculum : a psychology teacher's handbook. Keith, Kenneth D. (Kenneth Dwight), 1946-, Keith, Kenneth D. New York. ISBN   9781107189973. OCLC   1005687090.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  27. ↑ Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  28. ↑ "Chinese values and the search for culture-free dimensions of culture". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 18 (2): 143–164. 1987. doi:10.1177/0022002187018002002. S2CID   141650571.
  29. ↑ Minkov, Michael (2007). What makes us different and similar: A new interpretation of the World Values Survey and other cross-cultural data. Sofia, Bulgaria: Klasika y Stil Publishing House. ISBN   978-954-327-023-1
  30. ↑ Hofstede, Geert, Hofstede, Gert Jan, and Minkov, Michael. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the Mind (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
  31. ↑ McSweeney (2002). "Hofstede's model of national cultural differences and their consequences: A triumph of faith – a failure of analysis". Human Relations. 55 (1): 89–118. doi:10.1177/0018726702551004. S2CID   145781752.
  32. ↑ Kim, U., Triandis, H. C., Choi, S. C., Kağitçibaşi, Ç., & Yoon, G. (Eds.). (1994). Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  33. ↑ Fish, J. M. (1996). Culture and therapy: An integrative approach. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
  34. 1 2 3 4 Gielen, U. P., Draguns, J. G., & Fish, J. M. (Eds.) (2008). Principles of multicultural counseling and therapy. New York City, NY: Routledge.
  35. ↑ Fish, J. M. (2011). The concept of race and psychotherapy. New York: Springer Science + Business Media.
  36. 1 2 Gerstein, L.H., Heppner, P. P., AEgisdottir, Leung, S.-M. A., & Norsworthy, K. L. (Eds.). (2009). International handbook of cross-cultural counseling: Cultural assumptions and practices worldwide. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
  37. 1 2 Moodley, R., Gielen, U. P., & Wu, R. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of counseling and psychotherapy in an international context. New York: Routledge.
  38. 1 2 Moodley, R., Lengyell, M., Wu, R., & Gielen, U. P. (Eds.). (2015). International counseling case studies handbook. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
  39. ↑ Pedersen, P., Draguns J.G., Lonner W., & Trimble J. (2015). Counseling across cultures (7th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  40. ↑ Pedersen, P. (1999). Hidden messages in culture-centered counseling: A Triad Training Model. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  41. 1 2 McCrae, R. R. "Cross-cultural research on the five-factor model of personality". In W. J. Lonner, D. L. Dinnel, S. A. Hayes, & D. N. Sattler (Eds.) Online Readings in Psychology and Culture (Unit 6, Chapter 1). Center for Cross-Cultural Research, Western Washington University Bellingham, Washington USA. Retrieved 29 November 2012.
  42. 1 2 Ekman, Paul; Wallace V. Friesen; Maureen O' Sullivan; Anthony Chan; Irene Diacoyanni-Tarlatzis; Karl Heider; Rainer Krause; William Ayhan LeCompte; Tom Pitcairn; Pio E. Ricci-Bitti; Klaus Scherer; Masatoshi Tomita; Athanase Tzavaras (13 March 1987). "Universals and Cultural Differences in the Judgements of Facial Expressions of Emotion". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 53 (4): 712–717. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.712. PMID   3681648. S2CID   10889340.
  43. 1 2 Huang, Yueqin; Tang, Siu; Helmeste, Daiga; Shioiri, Toshiki; Someya, Toshiyuki (2001). "Differential judgement of static facial expressions of emotions in three cultures". Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 55 (5): 479–483. doi: 10.1046/j.1440-1819.2001.00893.x . ISSN   1323-1316. PMID   11555343. S2CID   31537812.
  44. 1 2 3 4 Suh, E.M; Oishi, S. "Subjective well-being across cultures". In W. J. Lonner, D. L. Dinnel, S., Online Readings in Psychology and Culture A. Hayes, & D. N. Sattler. Retrieved 30 November 2012.
  45. ↑ Diener, E.; M. Diener; C. Diener (1995). "Factors predicting subjective well-being of nations". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 69 (5): 851–864. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.851. PMID   7473035.
  46. 1 2 Grossmann, I.; Karasawa, M.; Izumi, S.; Na, J.; Varnum, M. E. W.; Kitayama, S.; Nisbett, R. E. (2012). "Aging and Wisdom: Culture Matters". Psychological Science. 23 (10): 1059–1066. doi:10.1177/0956797612446025. hdl: 11244/25191 . ISSN   0956-7976. PMID   22933459. S2CID   4829751.
  47. 1 2 Lieche, Diane (1992). "Comparison of the American mediation process with a Korean-American harmony restoration process". Conflict Resolution Quarterly. 9 (4): 323–339. doi:10.1002/crq.3900090405. ISSN   1536-5581.
  48. ↑ Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990). Sex and psyche: Gender and self viewed cross-culturally. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  49. 1 2 3 Best, D.; J. Williams (1997). "Social Behavior and Applications; Sex, Gender, and Culture". Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 3: 163–212.
  50. ↑ Bornstein, M.E. (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of cultural developmental science. New York: Psychology Press.
  51. ↑ Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., & Pandey, J. (Eds.). (1997). Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (2nd ed., Vols. 1–3). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
  52. ↑ Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Segall, M. H., & Dasen, P. R. (1992). Cross-cultural psychology: Research and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  53. ↑ Super, Charles M.; Sara Harkness (1997). "Basic Processes and Human Development: The Cultural Structuring of Child Development". The Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 2: 1–39.
  54. ↑ Deci, Edward L.; Ryan, Richard M. (2000-10-01). "The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior". Psychological Inquiry. 11 (4): 227–268. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01. ISSN   1047-840X.
  55. ↑ L., Ryan, Richard M. Deci, Edward (14 February 2017). Self-determination theory : basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Publications. ISBN   978-1-4625-2876-9. OCLC   1322796014.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ↑ De Man, Jeroen; Kasujja, Francis Xavier; Delobelle, Peter; Annerstedt, Kristi Sidney; Alvesson, Helle Mölsted; Absetz, Pilvikki; Wouters, Edwin; Daivadanam, Meena; Guwatudde, David; Puoane, Thandi; Remmen, Roy; Tabana, Hanani; Van Olmen, Josefien (2022-01-24). "Motivational determinants of physical activity in disadvantaged populations with (pre)diabetes: a cross-cultural comparison". BMC Public Health. 22 (1): 164. doi: 10.1186/s12889-022-12539-9 . ISSN   1471-2458. PMC   8787976 . PMID   35073882.
  57. ↑ Henrich, Joseph Patrick (2021). The WEIRDest people in the world : how the West became psychologically peculiar and particularly prosperous. Penguin Books. ISBN   978-0-14-197621-1. OCLC   1287175867.

Related Research Articles

In anthropology, folkloristics, linguistics, and the social and behavioral sciences, emic and etic refer to two kinds of field research done and viewpoints obtained.

Personality is any person's collection of interrelated behavioral, cognitive and emotional patterns that comprise a person’s unique adjustment to life. These interrelated patterns are relatively stable, but can change over long time periods.

Positive psychology is a field of psychological theory and research of optimal human functioning of people, groups, and institutions. It studies "positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions... it aims to improve quality of life."

Clinical psychology is an integration of human science, behavioral science, theory, and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment, clinical formulation, and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.

Counseling psychology is a psychological specialty that began with a focus on vocational counseling, but later moved its emphasis to adjustment counseling, and then expanded to cover all normal psychology and psychotherapy. There are many subcategories for counseling psychology, such as marriage and family counseling, rehabilitation counseling, clinical mental health counseling, educational counseling, etc. In each setting, they are all required to follow the same guidelines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paul Ekman</span> American psychologist (born 1934)

Paul Ekman is an American psychologist and professor emeritus at the University of California, San Francisco who is a pioneer in the study of emotions and their relation to facial expressions. He was ranked 59th out of the 100 most cited psychologists of the twentieth century. Ekman conducted seminal research on the specific biological correlations of specific emotions, attempting to demonstrate the universality and discreteness of emotions in a Darwinian approach.

Cultural psychology is the study of how cultures reflect and shape their members' psychological processes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Roy Baumeister</span> American social psychologist (born 1953)

Roy Frederick Baumeister is an American social psychologist who is known for his work on the self, social rejection, belongingness, sexuality and sex differences, self-control, self-esteem, self-defeating behaviors, motivation, aggression, consciousness, and free will.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emotionality</span>

Emotionality is the observable behavioral and physiological component of emotion. It is a measure of a person's emotional reactivity to a stimulus. Most of these responses can be observed by other people, while some emotional responses can only be observed by the person experiencing them. Observable responses to emotion do not have a single meaning. A smile can be used to express happiness or anxiety, while a frown can communicate sadness or anger. Emotionality is often used by experimental psychology researchers to operationalize emotion in research studies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shalom H. Schwartz</span> Israeli psychologist

Shalom H. Schwartz is a social psychologist, cross-cultural researcher and creator of the Theory of Basic Human Values. He also contributed to the formulation of the values scale in the context of social learning theory and social cognitive theory.

International or global psychology is an emerging branch of psychology that focuses on the worldwide enterprise of psychology in terms of communication and networking, cross-cultural comparison, scholarship, practice, and pedagogy. Often, the terms international psychology, global psychology, transnational psychology, and cross-cultural psychology are used interchangeably, but their purposes are subtly and importantly different: Global means worldwide, international means across and between nations, transnational means to transcend the nation-state, cross-cultural means across cultures. In contrast, the term "multicultural" is more often used to refer to ethnic and other cultural differences existing within a given nation rather than to global or international comparisons.

Edward Francis Diener was an American psychologist and author. Diener was a professor of psychology at the University of Utah and the University of Virginia, and Joseph R. Smiley Distinguished Professor Emeritus at the University of Illinois, as well as a senior scientist for the Gallup Organization. He is noted for his three decades of research on happiness, including work on temperament and personality influences on well-being, theories of well-being, income and well-being, cultural influences on well-being, and the measurement of well-being. As shown on Google Scholar as of April 2021, Diener's publications have been cited over 257,000 times.

Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that taken together constitute psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the list of psychology topics and list of psychology disciplines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory</span> Framework for cross-cultural communication

Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural psychology, developed by Geert Hofstede. It shows the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis.

John Widdup Berry is a psychologist known for his work in two areas: ecological and cultural influences on behavior; and the adaptation of immigrants and indigenous peoples following intercultural contact. The first is broadly in the domain of cross-cultural psychology; the second is in the domain of intercultural psychology.

Cultural differences can interact with positive psychology to create great variation, potentially impacting positive psychology interventions. Culture differences have an impact on the interventions of positive psychology. Culture influences how people seek psychological help, their definitions of social structure, and coping strategies. Cross cultural positive psychology is the application of the main themes of positive psychology from cross-cultural or multicultural perspectives.

The study of the relationship between gender and emotional expression is the study of the differences between men and women in behavior that expresses emotions. These differences in emotional expression may be primarily due to cultural expectations of femininity and masculinity.

Batja Mesquita is a Dutch social psychologist, a cultural psychologist and an affective scientist. She is a professor of psychology at the University of Leuven, Belgium, where she studies the role of culture in emotions, and of emotions in culture and society. She is director of the Center for Social and Cultural Psychology in Leuven.

Çiğdem Kağıtçıbaşı was a Turkish scientist and professor. She was a university professor since 1969 and received the APA Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology in 1993.

Harry Charalambos Triandis was Professor Emeritus at the Department of Psychology of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. He was considered a pioneer of cross-cultural psychology and his research focused on the cognitive aspects of attitudes, norms, roles and values in different cultures.

References

Further reading

Major reviews of literature in cross-cultural psychology, from: Triandis, Harry C.; Roy S. Malpass; Andrew R. Davidson (1971). "Cross-Cultural Psychology". Biennial Review of Anthropology. 7: 1–84. JSTOR   2949227.

  1. Five chapters in the Lindzey and Aronson Handbook of Social Psychology: Whiting 1968 on the methodology of one kind of cross-cultural research, Tajfek 1969 on perception, DeVos and Hippler 1969 on cultural psychology, Inkeles and Levinson 1969 on national character, and Etzioni 1969 on international relations
  2. Child's (1968) review of the culture and personality area in the Borgatta and Lambert Handbook of Personality Theory and Research
  3. Honigmann's (1967) book on personality and culture

Online publications

The following publications on the subject have been made available online on Google Book Search in their entirety or with substantial preview:

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.