Food psychology

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Food psychology is the psychological study of how people choose the food they eat (food choice), along with food and eating behaviors. [1] Food psychology is an applied psychology, using existing psychological methods and findings to understand food choice and eating behaviors. [2] Factors studied by food psychology include food cravings, sensory experiences of food, perceptions of food security and food safety, price, available product information such as nutrition labeling and the purchasing environment (which may be physical or online). Food psychology also encompasses broader sociocultural factors such as cultural perspectives on food, [3] public awareness of "what constitutes a sustainable diet", [4] and food marketing including "food fraud" where ingredients are intentionally motivated for economic gain as opposed to nutritional value. [5] [6] These factors are considered to interact with each other along with an individual's history of food choices to form new food choices and eating behaviors. [5]

Contents

The development of food choice is considered to fall into three main categories: properties of the food, individual differences and sociocultural influences. [1] [7] Food psychology studies psychological aspects of individual differences, although due to the interaction between factors and the variance in definitions, food psychology is often studied alongside other aspects of food choice including nutrition psychology. [7]

As of 2022, there are no specific journals for food psychology, with research being published in both nutrition and psychology journals. [4] [8]

Eating behaviors which are analysed by food psychology include disordered eating, behavior associated with food neophobia, and the public broadcasting/streaming of eating ( mukbang ). [9] [10] [11] Food psychology has been studied extensively using theories of cognitive dissonance and fallacious reasoning. [9] [12]

COVID-19

Food psychology has been used to examine how eating behaviors have been globally affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Changed food preferences due to COVID-19 have been found, with both beneficial and harmful effects on food choice. [13] [14] Studies in Spain and Saudi Arabia found a reduced consumption of processed foods and junk food, and higher rates of sustainable diets, [15] [13] whereas UK residents and US university students were found to have less influence in household food choice, increased snacking behaviors and generally increased consumption of junk food. [14] [16] 48% of residents in a UK study reported increased food intake, especially for high energy foods, and a similar percentage reported increased food cravings. [17] Increased food stockpiling and reduced effects of familiarity on food choice were also observed. [13] [16]

While some participants appear to have thrived in this context, with healthier lifestyles and decision-making, others gained weight, lacked varied diets and struggled with food expense. [16]

A 2020 review found the largest effects of COVID-19 in food choice to be from lockdowns, income loss leading to reduced food security, and bereavement due to COVID-19. [18] For example, one study in Iran found 61% of the sample population experiencing food insecurity which resulted from both economic and psychological effects. [19]

An individual's need for closure, a psychological measure of desire for certainty, was found to predict food stockpiling and wasting of food. [20] A study in Chile found higher anxiety as a predictor for fast food and pastry intake, suggesting that emotional eating has been amplified due to COVID-19. [21] By comparison, a UK study found lower levels of food craving control to be the most accurate predictor of increased high energy sweet and savoury food intake, along with emotional overeating, emotional undereating, experienced satiety and enjoyment of food being found as poor predictors. [17]

The tendency to stockpile or hoard food has also been explained using the theory of planned behavior, using data collected from Vietnam that has suggested high risk perception is correlated with food stockpiling and panic buying. [22] The perception of lacking food was found higher scoring in US women than US men, and higher in Indian men compared to Indian women, suggesting that country of residence may be a moderator to how gender affects need for closure in food, based on household roles. [20]

Italy

Italy has received particular academic attention during the COVID-19 pandemic for studies of food choice as the country was one of the most severely affected by COVID-19. One study found survey results that "Around 40% of the [Italian] population perceive that strengthening the immune defences through nutrition is not important to reduce the risk of coronavirus disease". [23] Survey results suggest that cooking behaviors were increased and junk food consumption was reduced, [24] along with raised public interest in sustainability issues including sustainable food products. [25]

Ethnocentrism has been proposed as an explanation for the large change in food choice and eating behaviors of Italians during COVID-19. [26]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diet (nutrition)</span> Sum of food consumed by an organism

In nutrition, diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. The word diet often implies the use of specific intake of nutrition for health or weight-management reasons. Although humans are omnivores, each culture and each person holds some food preferences or some food taboos. This may be due to personal tastes or ethical reasons. Individual dietary choices may be more or less healthy.

Neophobia is the fear of anything new, especially a persistent and abnormal fear. In its milder form, it can manifest as the unwillingness to try new things or break from routine. In the context of children the term is generally used to indicate a tendency to reject unknown or novel foods. Food neophobia, as it may be referred to, is an important concern in pediatric psychology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant-based diet</span> Diet consisting mostly or entirely of plant-based foods

A plant-based diet is a diet consisting mostly or entirely of plant-based foods. Plant-based diets encompass a wide range of dietary patterns that contain low amounts of animal products and high amounts of fiber-rich plant products such as vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts and seeds. They do not need to be vegan or vegetarian, but are defined in terms of low frequency of animal food consumption.

A food addiction or eating addiction is any behavioral addiction characterized primarily by the compulsive consumption of palatable and hyperpalatable food items. Such foods often have high sugar, fat, and salt contents (HFSS), and markedly activate the reward system in humans and other animals. Those with eating addictions often overconsume such foods despite the adverse consequences associated with their overconsumption.

A food craving is an intense desire to consume a specific food, and is different from normal hunger. It may or may not be related to specific hunger, the drive to consume particular nutrients that is well-studied in animals. In studies of food cravings, chocolate and chocolate confectioneries almost always top the list of foods people say they crave; this craving is referred to as chocoholism. The craving of non-food items as food is called pica.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palatability</span>

Palatability is the hedonic reward provided by foods or drinks that are agreeable to the "palate", which often varies relative to the homeostatic satisfaction of nutritional and/or water needs. The palatability of a dish or beverage, unlike its flavor or taste, varies with the state of an individual: it is lower after consumption and higher when deprived. It has increasingly been appreciated that this can create a hunger that is independent of homeostatic needs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable diet</span> Diet that contributes to the broader environmental and social sustainability

Sustainable diets are "dietary patterns that promote all dimensions of individuals’ health and wellbeing; have low environmental pressure and impact; are accessible, affordable, safe and equitable; and are culturally acceptable". These diets are nutritious, eco-friendly, economically sustainable, and accessible to people of various socioeconomic backgrounds. Sustainable diets attempt to address nutrient deficiencies and excesses, while accounting for ecological phenomena such as climate change, loss of biodiversity and land degradation. These diets are comparable to the climatarian diet, with the added domains of economic sustainability and accessibility.

Research into food choice investigates how people select the food they eat. An interdisciplinary topic, food choice comprises psychological and sociological aspects, economic issues and sensory aspects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social class differences in food consumption</span>

Social class differences in food consumption refers to how the quantity and quality of food varies according to a person's social status or position in the social hierarchy. Various disciplines, including social, psychological, nutritional, and public health sciences, have examined this topic. Social class can be examined according to defining factors — education, income, or occupational status — or subjective components, like perceived rank in society. The food represents a demarcation line for the elites, a "social marker", throughout the history of the humanity.

Nutrition psychology is the psychological study of the relationship between dietary intake and different aspects of psychological health. It is an applied field that uses an interdisciplinary approach to examine the influence of diet on mental health. Nutrition psychology seeks to understand the relationship between nutritional behavior, mental health and general well-being. It is a sub-field of psychology and more specifically of health psychology, and may be applied to numerous related fields, including psychology, dietetics, nutrition, and marketing.

Emotional eating, also known as stress eating and emotional overeating, is defined as the "propensity to eat in response to positive and negative emotions". While the term commonly refers to eating as a means of coping with negative emotions, it sometimes includes eating for positive emotions, such as overeating when celebrating an event or to enhance an already good mood.

Research into food preferences in older adults and seniors considers how people's dietary experiences change with ageing, and helps people understand how taste, nutrition, and food choices can change throughout one's lifetime, particularly when people approach the age of 70 or beyond. Influencing variables can include: social and cultural environment, gender and/or personal habits, and also physical and mental health. Scientific studies have been performed to explain why people like or dislike certain foods and what factors may affect these preferences.

The psychology of eating meat is an area of study seeking to illuminate the confluence of morality, emotions, cognition, and personality characteristics in the phenomenon of the consumption of meat. Research into the psychological and cultural factors of meat-eating suggests correlations with masculinity, support for hierarchical values, and reduced openness to experience. Because meat eating is widely practiced but is sometimes associated with ambivalence, it has been used as a case study in moral psychology to illustrate theories of cognitive dissonance and moral disengagement. Research into the consumer psychology of meat is relevant to meat industry marketing, as well as for advocates of reduced meat consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vegaphobia</span> Aversion to vegetarians and vegans

Vegaphobia, vegephobia, veganphobia, or veganophobia is an aversion to, or dislike of, vegetarians and vegans. The term first appeared in the 2010s, coinciding with the rise in veganism in the late 2010s. Several studies have found an incidence of vegaphobic sentiments in the general population. Positive feelings regarding vegetarians and vegans also exist. Because of their diet, others may perceive them as more virtuous or principled.

Dietary conservatism is a foraging strategy in which individuals show a prolonged reluctance to eat novel foods, even after neophobia has been overcome. Within any given population of foragers, some will be conservative and some will be adventurous, an alternative strategy in which individuals readily accept novel food immediately after neophobia has waned. Dietary conservatism and neophobia are however distinct processes, distinguished by the persistence of an individual's reluctance to eat over repeated encounters with novel food and over long time periods.

Leann L. Birch was an American developmental psychologist, best known for her research on children's eating behaviors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic</span> Psychological aspect of viral outbreak

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the mental health of people across the globe. The pandemic has caused widespread anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. According to the UN health agency WHO, in the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, prevalence of common mental health conditions, such as depression and anxiety, went up by more than 25 percent. The pandemic has damaged social relationships, trust in institutions and in other people, has caused changes in work and income, and has imposed a substantial burden of anxiety and worry on the population. Women and young people face the greatest risk of depression and anxiety. According to The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study of Mental Health, Substance Use, and Suicidal Ideation During the COVID-19 Pandemic, "63 percent of young people reported experiencing substantial symptoms of anxiety and depression".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment</span> COVID-19 pandemic on environmental issues and Earths climate

The COVID-19 pandemic has had an impact on the environment, with changes in human activity leading to temporary changes in air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions and water quality. As the pandemic became a global health crisis in early 2020, various national responses including lockdowns and travel restrictions caused substantial disruption to society, travel, energy usage and economic activity, sometimes referred to as the "anthropause". As public health measures were lifted later in the pandemic, its impact has sometimes been discussed in terms of effects on implementing renewable energy transition and climate change mitigation.

The Food Cravings Questionnaires (FCQs) are among the most widely used self-report questionnaires for measuring food craving. They were developed by Antonio Cepeda-Benito and colleagues in 2000. For the 39-item trait version (FCQ-T), respondents indicate how frequently each statement is true for them in general on a six-point scale with 1 = never/not applicable, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, 5 = usually, and 6 = always. For the 15-item state version (FCQ-S), respondents indicate the extent to which they agree with each statement right now, at this very moment, on a five-point scale with 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.

A variety of behaviors whereby people are highly selective in what they eat and do not eat are known as picky eating or selective eating. Selective eating is common in younger children and can also sometimes be seen in adults.

References

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  2. ↑ Carfora, Valentina; Cicia, Gianni; Conner, Mark (2021-09-20). "Editorial: Mind the Sustainable Food: New Insights in Food Psychology". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 725579. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725579 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   8488082 . PMID   34616341.
  3. ↑ de Ridder, Denise; Gillebaart, Marleen (August 2022). "How food overconsumption has hijacked our notions about eating as a pleasurable activity". Current Opinion in Psychology. 46: 101324. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101324 . ISSN   2352-250X. PMID   35339981.
  4. 1 2 Carfora, Valentina; Cicia, Gianni; Conner, Mark (2021-09-20). "Editorial: Mind the Sustainable Food: New Insights in Food Psychology". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 725579. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725579 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   8488082 . PMID   34616341.
  5. 1 2 Tsai, Fu-Sheng; Wen, Xiao-Wei; Srivastava, Shalini (2021-11-18). "Editorial: The Psychology of Food Safety and Consumption". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 767212. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.767212 . ISSN   1664-1078. PMC   8638618 . PMID   34867669.
  6. ↑ Mills, S. D. H.; Tanner, L. M.; Adams, J. (2013-01-09). "Systematic literature review of the effects of food and drink advertising on food and drink-related behaviour, attitudes and beliefs in adult populations". Obesity Reviews. 14 (4): 303–314. doi:10.1111/obr.12012. ISSN   1467-7881. PMID   23297736. S2CID   24310212.
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  11. ↑ Kircaburun, Kagan; Harris, Andrew; Calado, Filipa; Griffiths, Mark D. (2020-01-06). "The Psychology of Mukbang Watching: A Scoping Review of the Academic and Non-academic Literature". International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 19 (4): 1190–1213. doi: 10.1007/s11469-019-00211-0 . ISSN   1557-1874. S2CID   209893148.
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  17. 1 2 Buckland, Nicola J.; Swinnerton, Lucy F.; Ng, Kwok; Price, Menna; Wilkinson, Laura L.; Myers, Anna; Dalton, Michelle (March 2021). "Susceptibility to increased high energy dense sweet and savoury food intake in response to the COVID-19 lockdown: The role of craving control and acceptance coping strategies". Appetite. 158: 105017. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2020.105017. ISSN   0195-6663. PMC   8580210 . PMID   33161044.
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  22. ↑ Khoi, Bui Huy; Long, Nguyen Ngoc (2020-04-24). "An Empirical Study about the Intention to Hoard Food during COVID-19 Pandemic". Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education. 16 (7): em1857. doi: 10.29333/ejmste/8207 . ISSN   1305-8223. S2CID   219038977.
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  25. ↑ Castellini, Greta; Savarese, Mariarosaria; Graffigna, Guendalina (2021-03-09). "The Impact of COVID-19 Outbreak in Italy on the Sustainable Food Consumption Intention From a "One Health" Perspective". Frontiers in Nutrition. 8: 622122. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.622122 . ISSN   2296-861X. PMC   8006295 . PMID   33791331.
  26. ↑ Migliore, Giuseppina; Rizzo, Giuseppina; Schifani, Giorgio; Quatrosi, Giuseppe; Vetri, Luigi; Testa, Riccardo (2021-10-22). "Ethnocentrism Effects on Consumers' Behavior during COVID-19 Pandemic". Economies. 9 (4): 160. doi: 10.3390/economies9040160 . hdl: 10447/556557 . ISSN   2227-7099.
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