Theory of planned behavior

Last updated

The theory of planned behavior. Theory of planned behavior.png
The theory of planned behavior.

The theory of planned behavior (TPB) is a psychological theory that links beliefs to behavior. The theory maintains that three core components, namely, attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together shape an individual's behavioral intentions. In turn, a tenet of TPB is that behavioral intention is the most proximal determinant of human social behavior.

Contents

The theory was elaborated by Icek Ajzen for the purpose of improving the predictive power of the theory of reasoned action (TRA). Ajzen's idea was to include perceived behavioral control in TPB. [1] Perceived behavior control was not a component of TRA. TPB has been applied to studies of the relations among beliefs, attitudes, behavioral intentions, and behaviors in various human domains. These domains include, but are not limited to, advertising, public relations, advertising campaigns, healthcare, sport management [2] consumer/household finance, and sustainability.

History

Extension from the theory of reasoned action

Icek Ajzen (1985) proposed TPB in his chapter "From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior." [3] TPB developed out of TRA, a theory first proposed in 1980 by Martin Fishbein and Ajzen. TRA was in turn grounded in various theories bearing on attitude and attitude change, including learning theories, expectancy-value theories, attribution theory, and consistency theories (e.g., Heider's balance theory, Osgood and Tannenbaum's congruity theory, and Festinger's dissonance theory). [4] According to TRA, if an individual evaluates a suggested behavior as positive (attitude), and if he or she believes significant others want the person to perform the behavior (subjective norm), the intention (motivation) to perform the behavior will be greater and the individual will be more likely to perform the behavior. Attitudes and subjective norms are highly correlated with behavioral intention; behavioral intention is correlated with actual behavior. [5]

Research, [6] however, shows that behavioral intention does not always lead to actual behavior. Because behavioral intention cannot be the exclusive determinant of behavior where an individual's control over the behavior is incomplete, Ajzen introduced TPB by adding to TRA the component "perceived behavioral control." In this way he extended TRA to better predict actual behavior.

Perceived behavioral control refers to the degree to which a person believes that he or she can perform a given behavior. [1] Perceived behavioral control involves the perception of the individual's own ability to perform the behavior. In other words, perceived behavioral control is behavior- or goal-specific. That perception varies by environmental circumstances and the behavior involved. [1] The theory of planned behavior suggests that people are much more likely to intend to enact certain behaviors when they feel that they can enact them successfully. [7]

The theory has thus improved upon TRA.

Extension of self-efficacy

Along with attitudes and subjective norms (which make up TRA), TPB adds the concept of perceived behavioral control, which grew out of self-efficacy theory (SET). Bandura proposed self-efficacy construct in 1977, [8] in connection to social cognitive theory. Self-efficacy refers to a person's expectation or confidence that he or she can master a behavior or accomplish a goal; an individual has different levels of self-efficacy depending on the behavior or intent. Bandura distinguished two distinct types of goal-related expectations: self-efficacy and outcome expectancy. [9] He defined self-efficacy as the conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcome in question. Outcome expectancy refers to a person's estimation that a given behavior will lead to certain outcomes. Bandura advanced the view that self-efficacy is the most important precondition for behavioral change, since it is key to the initiation of coping behavior.

Previous investigations have shown that a person's behavior is strongly influenced by the individual's confidence in his or her ability to perform that behavior. [10] As self-efficacy contributes to explanations of various relationships among beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behavior, TPB has been widely applied in health-related fields such as helping preadolescents to engage in more physical activity, thereby improving their mental health, [11] and getting adults to exercise more. [12] [13] [14]

Key concepts

Normative beliefs and subjective norms

Control beliefs and perceived behavioral control

Behavioral intention and behavior

Conceptual / operational comparison

Perceived behavioral control vs. self-efficacy

Ajzen (1991) wrote that the role of perceived behavioral control in the theory of planned behavior derived from Bandura's concept of self-efficacy. More recently, Fishbein and Cappella [19] advanced the view that self-efficacy is equivalent to perceived behavioral control in Ajzen's integrative model. Perceived behavioral control can be assessed with the help of items from a self-efficacy scale. [20]

In previous studies, the construction of measures of perceived behavioral control has had to be tailored to each particular health-related behavior. For example, for smoking, an item could read "I don't think I am addicted because I can really just not smoke and not crave for it" or "It would be really easy for me to quit."

The concept of self-efficacy is rooted in Bandura's social cognitive theory. [21] It refers to the conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior required to attain a desired goal. The concept of self-efficacy is used as perceived behavioral control, which means the perception of the ease or difficulty of the particular behavior. It is linked to control beliefs, which refer to beliefs about the presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the behavior.

Perceived behavioral control is usually measured with self-report instruments comprising items that begin with the stem, "I am sure I can ... (e.g., exercise, quit smoking, etc.)." Such instruments attempt to measure the individual's confidence that he or she can execute a given behavior. [22]

Attitude toward behavior vs. outcome expectancy

The theory of planned behavior specifies the nature of the relationship between beliefs and attitudes. According to the theory, an individual's evaluation of, or attitude toward, a behavior is determined by his or her accessible beliefs about the behavior. The term belief in this theory refers to the subjective probability that the behavior will produce a certain outcome. Specifically, the evaluation of each outcome contributes to the attitude commensurately with the person's subjective probability that the behavior produces the outcome in question. [23] A belief is accessible if available from long-term memory.

The concept of outcome expectancy originated in the expectancy-value model. Outcome expectancy can be a belief, attitude, opinion, or expectation. According to the theory of planned behavior, an individual's positive evaluation of his or her performance of a particular behavior is similar to the concept of perceived benefits. A positive evaluation refers to a belief regarding the effectiveness of the proposed behavior in reducing the vulnerability to negative outcomes. By contrast, a negative self-evaluation refers to a belief regarding adverse consequences that can result from the enactment of the behavior.

Social influence

The concept of social influence has been assessed in both the theory of reasoned action and theory of planned behavior. Individuals' elaborative thoughts on subjective norms are perceptions of whether they are expected by their friends, their family, and society in general to perform a particular behavior. Social influence is measured by evaluating the attitudes of social groups. For example, in the case of smoking:

  1. Subjective norms the individual attaches to the peer group include thoughts such as, "Most of my friends smoke" or "I feel ashamed of smoking in front of a group of friends who don't smoke";
  2. Subjective norms the individual attaches to the family include thoughts such as, "All of my family smokes, and it seems natural to start smoking" or "My parents were really mad at me when I started smoking"; and
  3. Subjective norms the individual attaches to society or the general culture include thoughts such as, "Everyone is against smoking" or "We just assume everyone is a nonsmoker."

While most models are conceptualized within individual cognitive space, the theory of planned behavior considers social influence in terms of social norms and normative beliefs. Given that an individual's behavior (e.g., health-related decision-making such as diet, condom use, quitting smoking, and drinking, etc.) might very well be located in and dependent on social networks and organizations (e.g., peer group, family, school, and workplace), social influence has been a welcomed addition to the theory.

Model

Human behavior is guided by three kinds of considerations: behavioral beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs. In their respective aggregates, behavioral beliefs produce a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the behavior, normative beliefs result in a subjective norm, and control beliefs pertain to perceived behavioral control.

In combination, the attitude toward the behavior, the subjective norm, and the perceived behavioral control lead to the formation of a behavioral intention. [17] In particular, perceived behavioral control is presumed not only to affect actual behavior directly, but also to affect it indirectly through behavioral intention. [24]

As a general rule, when (a) the individual has a favorable attitude toward a behavior, (b) the attitude is aligned with the relevant norms, and (c) the individual perceives that s/he has a high level of behavioral control, a strong intention to perform the behavior in question is expected. [25] Finally, given a sufficient degree of actual control over the behavior, the individual is expected to carry out his or her intentions when the opportunity arises. [17]

Formula

In a simple form, behavioral intention for the theory of planned behavior can be expressed as the following mathematical function:

The three factors being proportional to their underlying beliefs: [1]

BI: Behavioral intention

A: Attitude toward behavior

b: the strength of each belief concerning an outcome or attribute

e: the evaluation of the outcome or attribute

SN: Subjective norm

n: the strength of each normative belief of each referent

m: the motivation to comply with the referent

PBC: Perceived Behavioral Control

c: the strength of each control belief

p: the perceived power of the control factor

w : empirically derived weight/coefficient

To the extent that it is an accurate reflection of actual behavioral control, perceived behavioral control can, together with intention, be used to predict behavior.

B: Behavior

BI: Behavioral intention

PBC: Perceived Behavioral Control

w : empirically derived weight/coefficient

Applications of the theory

The theory of planned behavior has been applied to a number of research areas including health-related behaviors, environmental psychology, and voting behavior.

Several studies found that, compared to TRA, TPB better predicts health-related behavioral intention. [26] TPB has improved the predictability of intention with regard to several health-related behaviors, including condom use, [27] [28] choice of leisure activities, [29] exercise, [30] and diet. [31] In this research, attitudes and intentions tend to be mediated by goals and needs. For example, an individual may be guided by the goal of losing 5 kg of weight in 60 days; a positive attitude and intention towards dieting would be important. However, if a need is taken into account, such as a need for a partner in an individual's effort to lose weight and the person is unable to find such a partner, the individual is not likely to lose weight.

TPB can also be applied to the area of nutrition-related interventions. In a study by Sweitzer et al., [32] TPB-related behavioral constructs guided the development of intervention strategies. TPB was applied in such a way as to encourage parents to include more fruit, vegetables and whole grains in the lunches they packed for their preschool children. Knowledge/behavioral control, self-efficacy/perceived behavioral control, subjective norms, and intentions were assessed. The researchers observed in the TPB-oriented intervention a significant increase in vegetables and whole grains in the lunches parents prepared for their children.

TPB has guided research aimed at preventing weight regain in individuals who had recently experienced a significant weight loss. [33] McConnon et al. (2012) found that perceived need to control weight predicts the behavior needed for weight maintenance. TPB can also help in assessing the behavioral intentions of practitioners who promote specific health behaviors. Chase et al. (2003) [34] studied dietitians' intentions to promote the consumption of whole grain foods. The study team found that the strongest indicator of dietitians' intentions to promote the consumption of whole grain foods was their normative beliefs about diet. However, some dietitians' knowledge was problematic, with only 60% of dietitians being able to correctly identify a whole grain product from a food label.

More recent research based on TPB examined college students' intentions to smoke e-cigarettes. Studies found that attitudes toward smoking and social norms significantly predicted college students' behavior, as TPB suggests. Positive attitudes toward smoking and normalizing the behavior were, in part, helped by advertisements on the Internet. With this knowledge, a smoking prevention campaign was started, specifically targeting college students collectively, not just as individuals. [35]

The theory of planned behavior model has thus been helpful in understanding health-related behaviors and developing interventions aimed at modifying those behaviors.

Environmental psychology

Another application of TPB has been in the field of environmental psychology. Generally speaking, actions that are environmentally friendly carry a positive normative belief. That is to say, behaviors that are consistent with environmental sustainability are widely promoted as positive behaviors. However, although there may be a behavioral intention to practice such behaviors, constraints can impede a sense of perceived behavioral control. An example of such a constraint is the belief that one's behavior will not have an impact. [36] [37] There are external constraints as well. For example, if an individual intends to behave in an environmentally responsible way but recycling infrastructure is absent in the individual's community, perceived behavioral control is likely to be low. The application of TPB in these situations helps explain contradictions such as individuals having positive attitudes toward sustainability but engaging in behavior that is antithetical to the idea of sustainability.

Other research has found that attitudes toward climate change, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms are associated with the intention to adopt a pro-environmental behavior. This knowledge can be applied to policy-making aimed at increasing environmentally friendly behavior. [38]

Additionally, research has been done more recently on Gen Z and how they relate to environmental psychology through the use of the TPB. For example, in 2020, Chaturvedi et al. conducted research on the behavioral intentions of Gen Z when it came to recycled clothing. They found that environmental concern, perceived value, and willingness to pay were the top leading factors in their purchasing intentions. [39] Similarly, Noor et al., looked at the actions surrounding green purchases and activities amongst Gen Z in 2017. They found that Gen Z has the intention of consuming green products due to the positive associations aligned with it, along with the subjective norms, perceived green knowledge, and social visibility towards those purchases. [40] Outside of personal product consumption, Ngo and Ha looked at Gen Z on using green tourism in 2023. They found that Gen Z used knowledge sharing as a precursor to shape their perception and attitudes towards green tourism services. Moreover, they recognized the importance of knowledge sharing to raise awareness surrounding not only green tourism, but green practices all together, to induce positive attitudes about sustainable practices. [41]

Voting behavior

TPB has guided political scientists' research on voter turnout and behavior. TPB has also been applied to help us understand legislator behavior. [42]

Financial behavior

The theory of planned behavior (TPB) is widely utilized in the field of household financial behavior research. This theory helps to understand and predict various financial decisions and behaviors, including investment choices, debt management, mortgage use, cash, saving, and credit management. It posits that individual intentions and attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are key factors influencing behavior. Over the years, researchers have applied and expanded upon this theory to gain insights into specific financial behaviors and their determinants. For example, in a study examining investment decisions, East (1993) [43] found that the subjective norm (influence of friends and relatives) and perceived control (importance of easy access to funds) significantly influenced individuals' investment choices. This highlights the importance of social influences and the perceived ease of acting in financial decision-making. In another study on individual debt behavior, Xiao and Wu (2008) [44] extended the TPB model and discovered that customer satisfaction contributed to behavioral intention and influenced actual behavior, emphasizing the role of client satisfaction in shaping financial actions. Similarly, in a study involving mortgage clients, Bansal & Taylor (2002) [45] explored factors affecting customer service switching behavior within the context of the TPB. They identified significant interactions between perceived control and intention, perceived control and attitude, and attitude and subjective norms, all of which shaped behavior intention. The TPB has also been applied to study the financial behaviors of college students concerning cash, credit, and saving management, providing valuable insights into how young adults form their financial behaviors based on their intentions, attitudes, social norms, and perceived control. [46] [47]

Important steps in applying TPB to help change behavior

With TPB as a theoretical framework, certain steps can be followed in efforts to increase the chances of behavior change. The team implementing an intervention should specify the action, target, context, and time. For example, a goal might be to "consume at least one serving of whole grains during breakfast each day in the forthcoming month." In this example, "consuming" is the action, "one serving of whole grains" is the target, "during breakfast each day" is the context, and "in the forthcoming month" is the time. Once a goal is specified, an elicitation phase can be used to identify salient factors that bear on achieving the goal. The pertinent beliefs regarding a specific behavior may differ in different populations. Conducting open-ended elicitation interviews can be useful in applying TPB. Elicitation interviews help to identify relevant behavioral outcomes, referents, cultural factors, facilitating factors, and barriers to change in the focal behavior and target population. [48] The following are sample questions that may be used during an elicitation interview: [48]

Evaluation of the theory

Strengths

TPB covers people's volitional behavior that cannot be explained by TRA. An individual's behavioral intention cannot be the exclusive determinant of behavior where an individual's control over the behavior is incomplete. By adding "perceived behavioral control," TPB can explain the relationship between behavioral intention and actual behavior.

Several studies found that, compared to TRA, TPB better predicts health-related behavioral intentions. [26] TPB has improved the predictability of intention in various health-related areas, including condom use, leisure, exercise, diet, etc. In addition, TPB (and TRA) have helped to explain the individual's social behavior by including social norms as an important contributing explanatory factor.

Limitations

More recently, some scholars criticize the theory because it ignores the individual's needs prior to engaging in a certain action, needs that would affect behavior regardless of expressed attitudes. [49] For example, a person might have a positive attitude regarding consuming beefsteak and yet not order a beefsteak because she is not hungry. Or, a person might have a negative attitude towards drinking and little intention to drink and yet engage in drinking because he is seeking group membership.

Another limitation is that TPB does not integrate into the theory the role the individual's emotions play in the development of intentions and during decision-making play. In addition, most of the research on TPB is correlational. More evidence from randomized experiments would be helpful. [50]

Some experimental studies challenge the assumption that intentions and behavior are consequences of attitudes, social norms, and perceived behavioral control. To illustrate, Sussman et al. (2019) [51] prompted participants to form the intention to support a specific environmental organization, for example, to sign a petition. After this intention was formed, attitudes, social norms, and perceived behavioral control shifted. Participants became more likely to report positive attitudes towards this organization and were more inclined to assume that members of their social group share comparable attitudes. [51] These findings imply that the associations among the three key elements—attitudes, social norms, and perceived behavioral control—and intentions may be bi-directional.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Albert Bandura</span> Canadian-American psychologist (1925–2021)

Albert Bandura was a Canadian-American psychologist. He was a professor of social science in psychology at Stanford University.

Social learning is a theory of learning process social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist; conversely, if a particular behavior is constantly punished, it will most likely desist. The theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning individual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attitude (psychology)</span> Concept linking cognitive processes to behavior

An attitude "is a summary evaluation of an object of thought. An attitude object can be anything a person discriminates or holds in mind." Attitudes include beliefs (cognition), emotional responses (affect) and behavioral tendencies. In the classical definition an attitude is persistent, while in more contemporary conceptualizations, attitudes may vary depending upon situations, context, or moods.

Expectancy theory proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice. The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transtheoretical model</span> Integrative theory of therapy

The transtheoretical model of behavior change is an integrative theory of therapy that assesses an individual's readiness to act on a new healthier behavior, and provides strategies, or processes of change to guide the individual. The model is composed of constructs such as: stages of change, processes of change, levels of change, self-efficacy, and decisional balance.

In psychology, self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their capacity to act in the ways necessary to reach specific goals. The concept was originally proposed by the psychologist Albert Bandura.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Theory of reasoned action</span> Psychological theory

The theory of reasoned action aims to explain the relationship between attitudes and behaviors within human action. It is mainly used to predict how individuals will behave based on their pre-existing attitudes and behavioral intentions. An individual's decision to engage in a particular behavior is based on the outcomes the individual expects will come as a result of performing the behavior. Developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen in 1967, the theory derived from previous research in social psychology, persuasion models, and attitude theories. Fishbein's theories suggested a relationship between attitude and behaviors. However, critics estimated that attitude theories were not proving to be good indicators of human behavior. The TRA was later revised and expanded by the two theorists in the following decades to overcome any discrepancies in the A–B relationship with the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and reasoned action approach (RAA). The theory is also used in communication discourse as a theory of understanding.

Reciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura which states that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. Bandura accepts the possibility that an individual's behavior may be conditioned through the use of consequences. At the same time he asserts that a person's behavior can impact the environment.

Social cognitive theory (SCT), used in psychology, education, and communication, holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. This theory was advanced by Albert Bandura as an extension of his social learning theory. The theory states that when people observe a model performing a behavior and the consequences of that behavior, they remember the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors. Observing a model can also prompt the viewer to engage in behavior they already learned. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and the outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior modeled. Media provides models for a vast array of people in many different environmental settings.

Behavioural change theories are attempts to explain why human behaviours change. These theories cite environmental, personal, and behavioural characteristics as the major factors in behavioural determination. In recent years, there has been increased interest in the application of these theories in the areas of health, education, criminology, energy and international development with the hope that understanding behavioural change will improve the services offered in these areas. Some scholars have recently introduced a distinction between models of behavior and theories of change. Whereas models of behavior are more diagnostic and geared towards understanding the psychological factors that explain or predict a specific behavior, theories of change are more process-oriented and generally aimed at changing a given behavior. Thus, from this perspective, understanding and changing behavior are two separate but complementary lines of scientific investigation.

Expectancy–value theory has been developed in many different fields including education, health, communications, marketing and economics. Although the model differs in its meaning and implications for each field, the general idea is that there are expectations as well as values or beliefs that affect subsequent behavior.

The value-action gap is the space that occurs when the values or attitudes of an individual do not correlate to their actions. More generally, it is the difference between what people say and what people do. The phrase is associated with environmental geography, relating to attitudes and behaviors surrounding environmental issues. Numerous studies have reported an increase in global environmental concern, but have shown that environmental engagement is not adjusting in accordance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health belief model</span> Psychological model

The health belief model (HBM) is a social psychological health behavior change model developed to explain and predict health-related behaviors, particularly in regard to the uptake of health services. The HBM was developed in the 1950s by social psychologists at the U.S. Public Health Service and remains one of the best known and most widely used theories in health behavior research. The HBM suggests that people's beliefs about health problems, perceived benefits of action and barriers to action, and self-efficacy explain engagement in health-promoting behavior. A stimulus, or cue to action, must also be present in order to trigger the health-promoting behavior.

Fear appeal is a term used in psychology, sociology and marketing. It generally describes a strategy for motivating people to take a particular action, endorse a particular policy, or buy a particular product, by arousing fear. A well-known example in television advertising was a commercial employing the musical jingle: "Never pick up a stranger, pick up Prestone anti-freeze." This was accompanied by images of shadowy strangers (hitchhikers) who would presumably do one harm if picked up. The commercial's main appeal was not to the positive features of Prestone anti-freeze, but to the fear of what a "strange" brand might do.

In psychology, the I-change model or the integrated model, for explaining motivational and behavioral change, derives from the Attitude – Social Influence – Self-Efficacy Model, integrates ideas of Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior, Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory, Prochaska's Transtheoretical Model, the Health Belief Model, and Goal setting theories. Previous versions of this model have been used to explain a variety of types of health behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health action process approach</span> Theory of health behavior change

The health action process approach (HAPA) is a psychological theory of health behavior change, developed by Ralf Schwarzer, Professor of Psychology at the Freie University Berlin of Berlin, Germany and SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Wroclaw, Poland, first published in 1992.

Technological self-efficacy (TSE) is "the belief in one's ability to successfully perform a technologically sophisticated new task". TSE does not highlight specific technological tasks; instead it is purposely vague. This is a specific application of the broader and more general construct of self-efficacy, which is defined as the belief in one's ability to engage in specific actions that result in desired outcomes. Self efficacy does not focus on the skills one has, but rather the judgments of what one can do with his or her skills. Traditionally, a distinguishing feature of self efficacy is its domain-specificity. In other words, judgments are limited to certain types of performances as compared to an overall evaluation of his or her potential. Typically, these constructs refer to specific types of technology; for example, computer self-efficacy, or internet self-efficacy and information technology self-efficacy. In order to organize this literature, technology specific self-efficacies that technology specific self-efficacies can be considered sub-dimensions under the larger construct of technological self-efficacy.

The reasoned action approach (RAA) is an integrative framework for the prediction of human social behavior. The reasoned action approach states that attitudes towards the behavior, perceived norms, and perceived behavioral control determine people's intentions, while people's intentions predict their behaviors.

An intention is a mental state in which the agent commits themselves to a course of action. Having the plan to visit the zoo tomorrow is an example of an intention. The action plan is the content of the intention while the commitment is the attitude towards this content. Other mental states can have action plans as their content, as when one admires a plan, but differ from intentions since they do not involve a practical commitment to realizing this plan. Successful intentions bring about the intended course of action while unsuccessful intentions fail to do so. Intentions, like many other mental states, have intentionality: they represent possible states of affairs.

Allen Erwin Liska was an American sociologist and criminologist. He was a full professor at the University at Albany, SUNY from 1982 until his death in 1998, having originally joined the faculty there in 1979. From 1985 to 1988, he was the chair of the Department of Sociology there. He supervised more Ph.D. students than any other faculty member in the University at Albany, SUNY's sociology department. During his career, he also served as chair of the American Sociological Association's Section on Crime, Law, and Deviance. He was named a fellow of the American Society of Criminology in November 1998. In 1999, he was one of four University at Albany, SUNY faculty members to receive the university's Excellence in Research Award.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Ajzen, Icek (1991). "The theory of planned behavior". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 50 (2): 179–211. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T. S2CID   260959149.
  2. Cunningham, George B.; Kwon, Hyungil (1 July 2003). "The Theory of Planned Behaviour and Intentions to Attend a Sport Event". Sport Management Review. 6 (2): 127–145. doi:10.1016/S1441-3523(03)70056-4.
  3. Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. Ina J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action control: From cognition to behavior. Berlin, Heidelber, New York: Springer-Verlag. (pp. 11–39).
  4. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1977). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research.
  5. Sheppard, B.H.; Hartwick, J.; Warshaw, P.R. (1988). "The theory of reasoned action: A meta-analysis of past research with recommendations for modifications and future research". Journal of Consumer Research. 15 (3): 325–343. doi:10.1086/209170.
  6. Norberg, P. A.; Horne, D. R.; Horne, D. A. (2007). "The pr paradox: Personal information disclosure intentions versus behaviors". Journal of Consumer Affairs. 41 (1): 100–126. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6606.2006.00070.x.
  7. Ahmed, Naveed; Li, Cai; Khan, Asadullah; Qalati, Sikandar Ali; Naz, Shumaila; Rana, Faisal (14 December 2020). "Purchase intention toward organic food among young consumers using theory of planned behavior: role of environmental concerns and environmental awareness". Journal of Environmental Planning and Management. 64 (5): 796–822. doi:10.1080/09640568.2020.1785404. ISSN   0964-0568. S2CID   230570512.
  8. Bandura, A. (1977). "Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change". Psychological Review. 84 (2): 191–215. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191. PMID   847061.
  9. Bandura, A. (Ed.). (1995). Self-efficacy in changing societies. Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/CBO9780511527692
  10. Bandura, A.; Adams, N. E.; Hardy, A. B.; Howells, G. N. (1980). "Tests of the generality of self-efficacy theory". Cognitive Therapy and Research. 4 (1): 39–66. doi:10.1007/bf01173354. S2CID   5691051.
  11. Annesi, James J. (2005). "Correlations of Depression and Total Mood Disturbance with Physical Activity and Self-Concept in Preadolescents Enrolled in an After-School Exercise Program". Psychological Reports. 96 (3_suppl): 891–898. doi:10.2466/pr0.96.3c.891-898. PMID   16173355. S2CID   25662545.
  12. Gyurcsik, N. C.; Brawley, L. R. (2000). "Mindful Deliberation About Exercise: Influence of Acute Positive and Negative Thinking1". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 30 (12): 2513–2533. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02448.x.
  13. Rodgers, W. M.; Brawley, L. R. (1996). "The influence of outcome expectancy and self-efficacy on the behavioral intentions of novice exercisers". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 26 (7): 618–634. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1996.tb02734.x.
  14. Stanley, M. A.; Maddux, J. E. (1986). "Cognitive processes in health enhancement: Investigation of a combined protection motivation and self-efficacy model". Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 7 (2): 101–113. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp0702_2.
  15. Amjad, N.; Wood, A.M. (2009). "Identifying and changing the normative beliefs about aggression which lead young Muslim adults to join extremist anti-Semitic groups in Pakistan" (PDF). Aggressive Behavior. 35 (6): 514–519. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.332.6476 . doi:10.1002/ab.20325. PMID   19790255. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
  16. Ajzen, I (2001). "Nature and operation of attitudes". Annual Review of Psychology. 52 (1): 27–58. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.27. PMID   11148298. S2CID   15064083.
  17. 1 2 3 Ajzen, I (2002). "Perceived Behavioral Control, Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control, and the Theory of Planned Behavior". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 32 (4): 665–683. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb00236.x.
  18. Leles, Claudio Rodrigues; Vieira, Antonio Helio (September 2014). "Exploring motivations to seek and undergo prosthodontic care: an empirical approach using the Theory of Planned Behavior construct". Patient Preference and Adherence. 8: 1215–1221. doi: 10.2147/PPA.S69619 . ISSN   1177-889X. PMC   4168850 . PMID   25246777.
  19. Fishbein, M., & Cappella, J. N. (2006). The role of theory in developing effective health communications [ dead link ]. Journal of Communication, 56(s1), S1-S17.
  20. Ajzen, I (2002). "Residual effects of past on later behavior: Habituation and reasoned action perspectives" (PDF). Personality and Social Psychology Review. 6 (2): 107–122. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0602_02. S2CID   145386785.
  21. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control (see article). New York: Freeman.
  22. Mirzaei, Nasim; Dehdari, Tahereh; Taghdisi, Mohammad Hossein; Zare, Najaf (24 September 2019). "Development of an instrument based on the theory of planned behavior variables to measure factors influencing Iranian adults' intention to quit waterpipe tobacco smoking". Psychology Research and Behavior Management. 12: 901–912. doi: 10.2147/PRBM.S196417 . PMC   6767482 . PMID   31576183.
  23. Ajzen, I.; Fishbein, M. (1975). "A Bayesian analysis of attribution processes". Psychological Bulletin. 82 (2): 261. doi:10.1037/h0076477.
  24. Noar, S. M.; Zimmerman, R. S. (2005). "Health Behavior Theory and cumulative knowledge regarding health behaviors: are we moving in the right direction?". Health Education Research. 20 (3): 275–290. doi: 10.1093/her/cyg113 . PMID   15632099.
  25. Godin, Gaston (January 2006). "Bridging the intention-behavior gap: The role of moral norm". British Journal of Social Psychology. 44 (4): 497–512. doi:10.1348/014466604X17452. PMID   16368016.
  26. 1 2 Ajzen, I. (1989). Attitude structure and behavior. Attitude structure and function, 241–274.
  27. Albarracin, D.; Johnson, B. T.; Fishbein, M.; Muellerleile, P. A. (2001). "Theories of reasoned action and planned behavior as models of condom use: a meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 127 (1): 142–161. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.142. PMC   4780418 . PMID   11271752.
  28. Sheeran, P.; Taylor, S. (1999). "Predicting Intentions to Use Condoms: A Meta-Analysis and Comparison of the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior1". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 29 (8): 1624–1675. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb02045.x.
  29. Ajzen, I., & Driver, B. L. (1992). Application of the theory of planned behavior to leisure choice. Journal of leisure research.
  30. Nguyen, M. N.; Potvin, L.; Otis, J. (1997). "Regular exercise in 30-to 60-year-old men: Combining the stages-of-change model and the theory of planned behavior to identify determinants for targeting heart health interventions". Journal of Community Health. 22 (4): 233–246. doi:10.1023/A:1025196218566. PMID   9247847. S2CID   24020552.
  31. Conner, M.; Kirk, S. F.; Cade, J. E.; Barrett, J. H. (2003). "Environmental influences: factors influencing a woman's decision to use dietary supplements". The Journal of Nutrition. 133 (6): 1978S–1982S. doi: 10.1093/jn/133.6.1978s . PMID   12771349.
  32. Sweitzer, S.; Briley, M.; Roberts-Gray, C.; Hoelscher, D.; Harrist, R.; Staskel, D.; Almansour, F. (2011). "Psychosocial Outcomes of Lunch is in the Bag, a Parent Program for Packing Healthy Lunches for Preschool Children". Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 43 (6): 536–542. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2010.10.009. PMC   3222455 . PMID   21852196.
  33. McConnon, A.; Raats, M.; Astrup, A.; Bajzová, M.; Handjieva-Darlenska, T.; Lindroos, A. K.; Martinez, J. A.; Larson, T. M.; et al. (2012). "Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior to weight control in an overweight cohort. Results from a pan-European dietary intervention trial (DiOGenes)" (PDF). Appetite. 58 (1): 313–318. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.10.017. PMID   22079178. S2CID   2864564.
  34. Chase, K., Reicks, M., & Jones, J. (2003). Applying the theory of planned behavior to promotion of whole-grain foods by dietitians. J Am Diet Assoc. 103:1639–1642.
  35. Dobbs, P.D.; Jozkowski, K.N.; Hammig, B.; Blunt-Vinti, H.; Henry, L.J.; Lo, W.J.; Gorman, D.; Luzius, A. (2019). "College student e-cigarette use: A reasoned action approach measure development". American Journal of Health Behavior. 43 (4): 753–766. doi:10.5993/AJHB.43.4.9. PMID   31239018. S2CID   195659144.
  36. Koger, S. & Winter, D. N. N. (2010). The Psychology of Environmental Problems. New York: Psychology Press.
  37. Stern, P. C. (2005). "Understanding individuals' environmentally significant behavior". Environmental Law Reporter: News and Analysis. 35: 10785–10790.
  38. Masud, M.M.; Al-Amin, A.Q.; Junsheng, H.; Ahmed, F.; Yahaya, S.R.; Akhtar, R.; Banna, H. (2015). "Climate change issue and the theory of planned behaviour:relationship by empirical evidence". Journal of Cleaner Production. 113: 613–623. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.080.
  39. Chatirvedi, Pallavi; Kulshreshtha, Kushagra; Tripathi, Vikas (December 2020). "Investigating the determinants of behavioral intentions of generation Z for recycled clothing: an evidence from a developing economy". Young Consumers. 21 (4): 403–417. doi:10.1108/YC-03-2020-1110. S2CID   224968273.
  40. Noor, Mohd N. M.; Jumain, Rudaini S. A.; Yusof, Afandi; Ahmat, Mohd A. H.; Kamaruzaman, Izzat F. (7 September 2017). "Determinants of generation Z green purchase decision: A SEM-PLS approach". International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences. 4 (11): 143–147. doi: 10.21833/ijaas.2017.011.023 . S2CID   168737549.
  41. Ngo, Quang V.; Ha, Van K. (23 August 2023). "Research on the Behavior of Gen Z on Using of Green Tourism: The Role of Knowledge Sharing". International Journal of Professional Business Review. 8 (8): e03172. doi: 10.26668/businessreview/2023.v8i8.3172 . S2CID   261183478.
  42. Tung, G.J.; Vernick, J.S.; Reiney, E.V.; Gielen, A.C. (2012). "Legislator voting and behavioral science theory: A systematic review". American Journal of Health Behavior. 36 (6): 823–833. doi:10.5993/AJHB.36.6.9. PMID   23026040.
  43. East, Robert (1 June 1993). "Investment decisions and the theory of planned behaviour". Journal of Economic Psychology. 14 (2): 337–375. doi:10.1016/0167-4870(93)90006-7. ISSN   0167-4870.
  44. Xiao, Jing Jian; Wu, Jiayun (2006). "Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior to Retain Credit Counseling Clients". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.939437. ISSN   1556-5068.
  45. Bansal, Harvir S.; Taylor, Shirley F. (4 April 2002). "Investigating interactive effects in the theory of planned behavior in a service-provider switching context". Psychology and Marketing. 19 (5): 407–425. doi:10.1002/mar.10017. ISSN   0742-6046.
  46. Shim, Soyeon; Xiao, Jing J.; Barber, Bonnie L.; Lyons, Angela C. (1 November 2009). "Pathways to life success: A conceptual model of financial well-being for young adults". Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. 30 (6): 708–723. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2009.02.003. ISSN   0193-3973. S2CID   144737105.
  47. Xiao, Jing Jian; Sorhaindo, Benoit; Garman, E. Thomas (March 2006). "Financial behaviours of consumers in credit counselling". International Journal of Consumer Studies. 30 (2): 108–121. doi:10.1111/j.1470-6431.2005.00455.x. ISSN   1470-6423.
  48. 1 2 Glanz K, Rimer BK, & Viswanath K; Health Behavior: Theory, Research, and Practice, 5th Edition, Jossey-Bass, 2015.
  49. Alhamad, Hamza; Donyai, Parastou (9 March 2021). "The Validity of the Theory of Planned Behaviour for Understanding People's Beliefs and Intentions toward Reusing Medicines". Pharmacy. 9 (1): 58. doi: 10.3390/pharmacy9010058 . ISSN   2226-4787. PMC   8006004 . PMID   33803406.
  50. Sniehotta, F.F. (2009). "An experimental test of the Theory of Planned Behavior". Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being. 1 (2): 257–270. doi:10.1111/j.1758-0854.2009.01013.x.
  51. 1 2 Sussman, Reuven; Gifford, Robert (2019). "Causality in the Theory of Planned Behavior". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 45 (6): 920–933. doi:10.1177/0146167218801363. ISSN   0146-1672. PMID   30264655. S2CID   52875787.