Environmental health

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Conceptual map illustrating the connections among nonhuman nature, ecosystem services, environmental ethics, environmental justice, and public health Conceptual-map-illustrating-the-connections-among-nonhuman-nature-ecosystem-services-environmental-ethics-environmental.jpg
Conceptual map illustrating the connections among nonhuman nature, ecosystem services, environmental ethics, environmental justice, and public health
Environmental health indicator (2016). It consists of three categories: health impacts, air quality, and water and sanitation. The health impacts category includes the environmental risk exposure indicator. 2016 EPI Environmental Health Objective (26170609558).jpg
Environmental health indicator (2016). It consists of three categories: health impacts, air quality, and water and sanitation. The health impacts category includes the environmental risk exposure indicator.

Environmental health is the branch of public health concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment affecting human health. To effectively control factors that may affect health, the requirements that must be met to create a healthy environment must be determined. [1] The major sub-disciplines of environmental health are environmental science, toxicology, environmental epidemiology, and environmental and occupational medicine. [2]

Contents

Definitions

WHO definitions

Environmental health was defined in a 1989 document by the World Health Organization (WHO) as: Those aspects of human health and disease that are determined by factors in the environment. [3] It is also referred to as the theory and practice of accessing and controlling factors in the environment that can potentially affect health. [4]

A 1990 WHO document states that environmental health, as used by the WHO Regional Office for Europe, "includes both the direct pathological effects of chemicals, radiation and some biological agents, and the effects (often indirect) on health and well being of the broad physical, psychological, social and cultural environment, which includes housing, urban development, land use and transport." [5]

As of 2016, the WHO website on environmental health states that "Environmental health addresses all the physical, chemical, and biological factors external to a person, and all the related factors impacting behaviours. It encompasses the assessment and control of those environmental factors that can potentially affect health. It is targeted towards preventing disease and creating health-supportive environments. This definition excludes behaviour not related to environment, as well as behaviour related to the social and cultural environment, as well as genetics." [6]

The WHO has also defined environmental health services as "those services which implement environmental health policies through monitoring and control activities. They also carry out that role by promoting the improvement of environmental parameters and by encouraging the use of environmentally friendly and healthy technologies and behaviors. They also have a leading role in developing and suggesting new policy areas." [7] [8]

Other considerations

The term environmental medicine may be seen as a medical specialty, or branch of the broader field of environmental health. [9] [10] Terminology is not fully established, and in many European countries they are used interchangeably. [11]

Other terms referring to or concerning environmental health include environmental public health and health protection. [12]

Pediatric environmental health

Children's environmental health is the academic discipline that studies how environmental exposures in early life—chemical, biological, nutritional, and social—influence health and development in childhood and across the entire human life span. [13] Pediatric environmental health is based on the recognition that children are not “little adults.” Infants and children have unique patterns of exposure and vulnerabilities. Environmental risks of infants and children are qualitatively and quantitatively different from those of adults. Pediatric environmental health is highly interdisciplinary. It spans and brings together general pediatrics and numerous pediatric subspecialties as well as epidemiology, occupational and environmental medicine, medical toxicology, industrial hygiene, and exposure science.

Disciplines

Five basic disciplines generally contribute to the field of environmental health: environmental epidemiology, toxicology, exposure science, environmental engineering, and environmental law. Each of these five disciplines contributes different information to describe problems and solutions in environmental health. However, there is some overlap among them.

Information from epidemiology, toxicology, and exposure science can be combined to conduct a risk assessment for specific chemicals, mixtures of chemicals or other risk factors to determine whether an exposure poses significant risk to human health (exposure would likely result in the development of pollution-related diseases). This can in turn be used to develop and implement environmental health policy that, for example, regulates chemical emissions, or imposes standards for proper sanitation. [21] Actions of engineering and law can be combined to provide risk management to minimize, monitor, and otherwise manage the impact of exposure to protect human health to achieve the objectives of environmental health policy.

Concerns

Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution Health effects of pollution.png
Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution
FEMA/EPA Hazardous Materials Team removing hazards left in the wake of Hurricane Katrina, 2005 FEMA - 16491 - Photograph by John Fleck taken on 09-30-2005 in Mississippi.jpg
FEMA/EPA Hazardous Materials Team removing hazards left in the wake of Hurricane Katrina, 2005
Lecture of Joyeeta Gupta (University of Amsterdam) on environmental health

Environmental health addresses all human-health-related aspects of the natural environment and the built environment. Environmental health concerns include:

According to recent estimates, about 5 to 10% of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) lost are due to environmental causes in Europe. By far the most important factor is fine particulate matter pollution in urban air. [25] Similarly, environmental exposures have been estimated to contribute to 4.9 million (8.7%) deaths and 86 million (5.7%) DALYs globally. [26] In the United States, Superfund sites created by various companies have been found to be hazardous to human and environmental health in nearby communities. It was this perceived threat, raising the specter of miscarriages, mutations, birth defects, and cancers that most frightened the public. [27]

Air quality

Air quality includes ambient outdoor air quality and indoor air quality. Large concerns about air quality include environmental tobacco smoke, air pollution by forms of chemical waste, and other concerns.

Outdoor air quality

Air pollution is globally responsible for over 6.5 million deaths each year. [28] Air pollution is the contamination of an atmosphere due to the presence of substances that are harmful to the health of living organisms, the environment or climate. [29] These substances concern environmental health officials since air pollution is often a risk-factor for diseases that are related to pollution, like lung cancer, respiratory infections, asthma, heart disease, and other forms of respiratory-related illnesses. [30] Reducing air pollution, and thus developing air quality, has been found to decrease adult mortality. [31]

A Mumbai factory releasing air pollution. Air pollution amid blue skies, the day after reopening from lockdown near Mumbai.jpg
A Mumbai factory releasing air pollution.

Common products responsible for emissions include road traffic, energy production, household combustion, aviation and motor vehicles, and other forms of pollutants. [32] [33] These pollutants are responsible for the burning of fuel, which can release harmful particles into the air that humans and other living organisms can inhale or ingest. [34]

Air pollution is associated with adverse health effects like respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancer, related illnesses, and even death. [35] The risk of air pollution is determined by the pollutant's hazard and the amount of exposure that affects a person. [36] For example, a child who plays outdoor sports will have a higher likelihood of outdoor air pollution exposure than an adult who tends to spend more time indoors, whether at work or elsewhere. [36] Environmental health officials work to detect individuals who are at higher risks of consuming air pollution, work to decrease their exposure, and detect risk factors present in communities. [37]

However, as shown in research by Ernesto, Sánchez-Triana in the case of Pakistan. After identifying the main sources of air pollution, such as mobile sources, such as heavy-duty vehicles and motorized 2–3 wheelers; stationary sources, such as power plants and burning of waste; and natural dust. The country implemented a clean air policy to reduce the road transport sector, which is responsible for 85% of particulate matter of less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5) total emissions and 72% of particulate matter of less than 10 microns (PM10) [38] Most successful policies were:

  • Improving fuel quality by reducing the sulfur content in diesel
  • Converting diesel minibuses and city delivery vans to compressed natural gas (CNG)
  • Installing diesel oxidation catalysts (DOCs) on existing large buses and trucks
  • Converting existing two-stroke rickshaws to four-stroke CNG engines
  • Introducing low-sulfur fuel oil (1% sulfur) to major users located in Karachi [38]

Indoor air quality

Household air pollution contributes to diseases that kill almost 4.3 million people every year. [39] Indoor air pollution contributes to risk factors for diseases like heart disease, pulmonary disease, stroke, pneumonia, and other associated illnesses. [39] For vulnerable populations, such as children and elderly populations, who spend large amounts of their time indoors or indoor air quality can be dangerous. [40]

Burning fuels like coal or kerosene inside homes can cause dangerous chemicals to be released into the air. [39] Dampness and mold in houses can cause diseases, but few studies have been performed on mold in schools and workplaces. [41] Environmental tobacco smoke is considered to be a leading contributor to indoor air pollution since exposure to second and third-hand smoke is a common risk factor. [42] Tobacco smoke contains over 60 carcinogens, where 18% are known human carcinogens. [43] Exposure to these chemicals can lead to exacerbation of asthma, the development of cardiovascular diseases and cardiopulmonary diseases, and an increase in the likelihood of cancer development. [44]

Climate change and its effects on health

Climate change makes extreme weather events more likely, including ozone smog events, dust storms, and elevated aerosol levels, all due to extreme heat, drought, winds, and rainfall. [45] [46] These extreme weather events can increase the likelihood of undernutrition, mortality, food insecurity, and climate-sensitive infectious diseases in vulnerable populations. [47] The effects of climate change are felt by the whole world, but disproportionately affect disadvantaged populations who are subject to climate change vulnerability. [48]

Water runoff in Maryland, USA. Runoff 179 (14412166837).jpg
Water runoff in Maryland, USA.

Climate impacts can affect exposure to water-borne pathogens through increased rates of runoff, frequent heavy rains, and the effects of severe storms. [49] Extreme weather events and storm surges can also exceed the capacity of water infrastructure, which can increase the likelihood that populations will be exposed to these contaminants. [49] [50] Exposure to these contaminants are more likely in low-income communities, where they have inadequate infrastructure to respond to climate disasters and are less likely to recover from infrastructure damage as quickly. [51]

Problems like the loss of homes, loved ones, and previous ways of life, are often what people face after a climate disaster occurs. These events can lead to vulnerability in the form of housing affordability stress, lower household income, lack of community attachment, grief, and anxiety around another disaster occurring. [48]

Environmental racism

Certain groups of people can be put at a higher risk for environmental hazards like air, soil and water pollution. This often happens due to marginalization, economic and political processes, and racism. Environmental racism uniquely affects different groups globally, however generally the most marginalized groups of any region are affected. These marginalized groups are frequently put next to pollution sources like major roadways, toxic waste sites, landfills, and chemical plants. [52] In a 2021 study, it was found that racial and ethnic minority groups in the United States are exposed to disproportionately high levels of particulate air pollution. [53] Racial housing policies that exist in the United States continue to exacerbate racial minority exposure to air pollution at a disproportionate rate, even as overall pollution levels have declined. [53] Likewise, in a 2022 study, it was shown that implementing policy changes that favor wealth redistribution could double as climate change mitigation measures. [54] For populations who are not subject to wealth redistribution measures, this means more money will flow into their communities while climate effects are mitigated. [53] [54]

Noise pollution

Airplane flying over a residential district. Qantas b747 over houses arp.jpg
Airplane flying over a residential district.

Noise pollution is usually environmental, machine-created sound that can disrupt activities or communication between humans and other forms of life.[ citation needed ] Exposure to persistent noise pollution can cause numerous ailments like hearing impairment, sleep disturbances, cardiovascular problems, annoyance, problems with communication and other diseases. [55] For American minorities that live in neighborhoods of low socioeconomic status, they often experience higher levels of noise pollution compared to their higher socioeconomic counterparts. [56]

Noise pollution can cause or exacerbate cardiovascular diseases, which can further attribute to a larger range of diseases, increase stress levels, and cause sleep disturbances. [56] Noise pollution is also responsible for many reported cases of hearing loss, tinnitus, and other forms of hypersensitivity(stress/irritability) or lack thereof to sound(present or subconscious from continuous exposure). [56] These conditions can be dangerous to children and young adults who consistently experience noise pollution, as many of these conditions can develop into long-term problems, including physical and mental health issues. [56]

Children who attend school in noisy traffic zones have shown to have 15% lower memory development compared to other students who attended schools in quiet traffic zones, according to a Barcelona study. [57] This is consistent with research that suggests that children who are exposed to regular aircraft noise "have inadequate performance on standardised achievement tests." [58]

Exposure to persistent noise pollution can cause one to develop hearing impairments, like tinnitus or impaired speech discrimination. [59] One of the largest factors in worsened mental health due to noise pollution is annoyance. [60] [61] Annoyance due to environmental factors has been found to increase stress reactions and overall feelings of stress among adults. [55] The level of annoyance felt by an individual varies, but contributes to worsened mental health significantly. [61]

Noise exposure also contributes to sleep disturbances, which can cause daytime sleepiness and an overall lack of sleep, which contributes to worsened health. [61] Daytime sleepiness has been linked to several reports of declining mental health and other health issues, job insecurities and further social and environmental factors declining.

Safe drinking water

Well installation for safe drinking water. Tube well installation project for safe drinking water supply by Needy Foundation 04.jpg
Well installation for safe drinking water.

Access to safe drinking water is considered a "basic human need for health and well-being" by the United Nations. [62] According to their reports, over 2 billion people worldwide live without access to safe drinking water. [63] In 2017, almost 22 million Americans drank from water systems that were in violation of public health standards. [64] Globally, over 2 billion people drink feces-contaminated water, which poses the greatest threat to drinking water safety. [65] Contaminated drinking water could transmit diseases like cholera, dysentery, typhoid, diarrhea and polio. [65]

Harmful chemicals in drinking water can negatively affect health. Unsafe water management practices can increase the prevalence of water-borne diseases and sanitation-related illnesses. [66] [67] Inadequate disinfecting of wastewater in industrial and agricultural centers can also infect hundreds of millions of people with contaminated water. [65] Chemicals like fluoride and arsenic can benefit humans when the levels of these chemicals are controlled;but other, more dangerous chemicals like lead and metals can be harmful to humans. [65]

In America, communities of color can be subject to poor-quality water. [68] In communities in America with large Hispanic and black populations, there is a correlated rise in SDWA health violations. [68] Populations who have experienced lack of safe drinking water, like populations in Flint, Michigan, are more likely to distrust tap water in their communities. [51] Populations to experience this are commonly low-income, communities of color. [69]

Hazardous materials management

Hazardous materials management, including hazardous waste management, contaminated site remediation, the prevention of leaks from underground storage tanks and the prevention of hazardous materials releases to the environment and responses to emergency situations resulting from such releases. When hazardous materials are not managed properly, waste can pollute nearby water sources and reduce air quality. [70]

According to a study done in Austria, people who live near industrial sites are "more often unemployed, have lower educations levels, and are twice as likely to be immigrants. [71] With the interest of environmental health in mind, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act was passed in the United States in 1976 that covered how to properly manage hazardous waste. [72]

There are a variety of occupations that work with hazardous materials and help manage them so that everything is disposed of correctly. These professionals work in various sectors, including government agencies, private industry, consulting firms, and non-profit organizations, all with the common goal of ensuring the safe handling of hazardous materials and waste. These positions include but are not limited to Environmental Health and Safety Specialists, Waste collectors, Medical Professionals, and Emergency Responders. [73] Handling waste, especially hazardous materials is considered one of the most dangerous occupations in the world. [74] Often, these workers may not have all of information about the specific hazardous materials they encounter, making their jobs even more dangerous. The sudden exposure to materials they are not properly prepared to handle can lead to severe consequences. [75] This emphasizes the importance of training, safety protocols, and the use of personal protective equipment for those working with hazardous waste.

Microplastic pollution

This section is an excerpt from Microplastics and human health.[ edit ]
Humans are exposed to toxic chemicals and microplastics at all stages in the plastics life cycle We are exposed to toxic chemicals and microplastics at all stages in the plastics life cycle. The pollutants can get into our bodies in many ways.svg
Humans are exposed to toxic chemicals and microplastics at all stages in the plastics life cycle

Microplastics effects on human health are of growing concern and an area of research. The tiny particles known as microplastics (MPs), have been found in various environmental and biological matrices, including air, water, food, and human tissues. Microplastics, defined as plastic fragments smaller than 5 mm, and even smaller particles such as nanoplastics (NP), particles smaller than 1000 nm in diameter (0.001 mm or 1 μm), have raised concerns impacting human health. [76] [77] The pervasive presence of plastics in our environment has raised concerns about their long-term impacts on human health. While visible pollution caused by larger plastic items is well-documented, the hidden threat posed by nanoplastics remains under-explored. These particles originate from the degradation of larger plastics and are now found in various environmental matrices, including water, soil, and air. Given their minute size, nanoplastics can penetrate biological barriers and accumulate in human tissues, potentially leading to adverse health effects. [78] [79]

Plastics continue to accumulate in landfills and oceans, leading to pollution that negatively impacts both human and animal health. Notably, microplastics and nanoplastics are now ubiquitous, infiltrating our food chain and water supplies. Studies indicate that humans ingest significant amounts of microplastics daily through food, especially seafood [80] and inhalation, with estimates ranging from 39,000 to 52,000 particles per person annually [81] Additionally, the presence of microplastics in human feces suggests widespread exposure and absorption. [82] In scientific literature, combined microplastics and nanoplastics are referred to as MNPs or NMPs, or NMPPs for nano-and microplastic particles.

Understanding the sources and health effects of nanoplastics is crucial for developing effective public health policies. As plastics are an integral part of modern life, balancing their benefits with the associated health risks is essential. This research aims to provide evidence-based recommendations to mitigate the adverse health effects of nanoplastics, thereby informing future regulatory and policy decisions. The increasing presence of nanoplastics in the environment has raised concerns about their potential impacts on human health. Research has shown that nanoplastics can penetrate biological barriers, induce toxicity, and accumulate in organs, leading to various health issues [83] . Nanoplastics have been found in drinking water, food, and air, making human exposure ubiquitous [84] .

Soil pollution

This section is an excerpt from Soil contamination § Exposure pathways.[ edit ]

Contaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact with soil or via inhalation of soil contaminants that have vaporized; potentially greater threats are posed by the infiltration of soil contamination into groundwater aquifers used for human consumption, sometimes in areas apparently far removed from any apparent source of above-ground contamination. Toxic metals can also make their way up the food chain through plants that reside in soils containing high concentrations of heavy metals. [85] This tends to result in the development of pollution-related diseases.

Most exposure is accidental, and exposure can happen through: [86]

  • Ingesting dust or soil directly
  • Ingesting food or vegetables grown in contaminated soil or with foods in contact with contaminants
  • Skin contact with dust or soil
  • Vapors from the soil
  • Inhaling clouds of dust while working in soils or windy environments
However, some studies estimate that 90% of exposure is through eating contaminated food. [86]

Information and mapping

The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP) [87] is a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site, that includes open access to resources produced by US government agencies and organizations, and is maintained under the umbrella of the Specialized Information Service at the United States National Library of Medicine. TEHIP includes links to technical databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP is responsible for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET), [88] an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health databases including the Hazardous Substances Data Bank, that are open access, i.e. available free of charge. TOXNET was retired in 2019. [89]

There are many environmental health mapping tools. TOXMAP is a geographic information system (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services [90] of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) that uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs. TOXMAP is a resource funded by the US federal government. TOXMAP's chemical and environmental health information is taken from the NLM's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET) [91] and PubMed, and from other authoritative sources.

Environmental health profession

Environmental health professionals may be known as environmental health officers, public health inspectors, environmental health specialists or environmental health practitioners. Researchers and policy-makers also play important roles in how environmental health is practiced in the field. In many European countries, physicians and veterinarians are involved in environmental health. [92] In the United Kingdom, practitioners must have a graduate degree in environmental health and be certified and registered with the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health or the Royal Environmental Health Institute of Scotland. [93] In Canada, practitioners in environmental health are required to obtain an approved bachelor's degree in environmental health along with the national professional certificate, the Certificate in Public Health Inspection (Canada), CPHI(C). [94] Many states in the United States also require that individuals have a bachelor's degree and professional licenses to practice environmental health. [95] California state law defines the scope of practice of environmental health as follows: [96]

"Scope of practice in environmental health" means the practice of environmental health by registered environmental health specialists in the public and private sector within the meaning of this article and includes, but is not limited to, organization, management, education, enforcement, consultation, and emergency response for the purpose of prevention of environmental health hazards and the promotion and protection of the public health and the environment in the following areas: food protection; housing; institutional environmental health; land use; community noise control; recreational swimming areas and waters; electromagnetic radiation control; solid, liquid, and hazardous materials management; underground storage tank control; onsite septic systems; vector control; drinking water quality; water sanitation; emergency preparedness; and milk and dairy sanitation pursuant to Section 33113 of the Food and Agricultural Code.

The environmental health profession had its modern-day roots in the sanitary and public health movement of the United Kingdom. This was epitomized by Sir Edwin Chadwick, who was instrumental in the repeal of the poor laws, and in 1884 was the founding president of the Association of Public Sanitary Inspectors, now called the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health. [97]

See also

Journals:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pollution</span> Introduction of contaminants that cause adverse change

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause harm. Pollution can take the form of any substance or energy. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemical waste</span> Waste made from harmful chemicals

Chemical waste is any excess, unused, or unwanted chemical. Chemical waste may be classified as hazardous waste, non-hazardous waste, universal waste, or household hazardous waste, each of which is regulated separately by national governments and the United Nations. Hazardous waste is material that displays one or more of the following four characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity. This information, along with chemical disposal requirements, is typically available on a chemical's Safety Data Sheet (SDS). Radioactive and biohazardous wastes require additional or different methods of handling and disposal, and are often regulated differently than standard hazardous wastes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indoor air quality</span> Air quality within and around buildings and structures

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is the air quality within buildings and structures. Poor indoor air quality due to indoor air pollution is known to affect the health, comfort, and well-being of building occupants. It has also been linked to sick building syndrome, respiratory issues, reduced productivity, and impaired learning in schools. Common pollutants of indoor air include: secondhand tobacco smoke, air pollutants from indoor combustion, radon, molds and other allergens, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, legionella and other bacteria, asbestos fibers, carbon dioxide, ozone and particulates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water pollution</span> Contamination of water bodies

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, with a negative impact on their uses. It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources. These are sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater. Water pollution may affect either surface water or groundwater. This form of pollution can lead to many problems. One is the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. Another is spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation. Water pollution also reduces the ecosystem services such as drinking water provided by the water resource.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational hygiene</span> Management of workplace health hazards

Occupational hygiene or industrial hygiene (IH) is the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, control, and confirmation (ARECC) of protection from risks associated with exposures to hazards in, or arising from, the workplace that may result in injury, illness, impairment, or affect the well-being of workers and members of the community. These hazards or stressors are typically divided into the categories biological, chemical, physical, ergonomic and psychosocial. The risk of a health effect from a given stressor is a function of the hazard multiplied by the exposure to the individual or group. For chemicals, the hazard can be understood by the dose response profile most often based on toxicological studies or models. Occupational hygienists work closely with toxicologists (see Toxicology) for understanding chemical hazards, physicists (see Physics) for physical hazards, and physicians and microbiologists for biological hazards (see Microbiology, Tropical medicine, Infection). Environmental and occupational hygienists are considered experts in exposure science and exposure risk management. Depending on an individual's type of job, a hygienist will apply their exposure science expertise for the protection of workers, consumers and/or communities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persistent organic pollutant</span> Organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. They are toxic and adversely affect human health and the environment around the world. Because they can be transported by wind and water, most POPs generated in one country can and do affect people and wildlife far from where they are used and released.

Cadmium is a naturally occurring toxic metal with common exposure in industrial workplaces, plant soils, and from smoking. Due to its low permissible exposure in humans, overexposure may occur even in situations where only trace quantities of cadmium are found. Cadmium is used extensively in electroplating, although the nature of the operation does not generally lead to overexposure. Cadmium is also found in some industrial paints and may represent a hazard when sprayed. Operations involving removal of cadmium paints by scraping or blasting may pose a significant hazard. The primary use of cadmium is in the manufacturing of NiCd rechargeable batteries. The primary source for cadmium is as a byproduct of refining zinc metal. Exposures to cadmium are addressed in specific standards for the general industry, shipyard employment, the construction industry, and the agricultural industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental hazard</span> Harmful substance, a condition or an event

Environmental hazards are hazards that affect biomes or ecosystems. Well known examples include oil spills, water pollution, slash and burn deforestation, air pollution, ground fissures, and build-up of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Physical exposure to environmental hazards is usually involuntary

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine pollution</span> Pollution of oceans from substances discarded by humans

Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as industrial, agricultural and residential waste, particles, noise, excess carbon dioxide or invasive organisms enter the ocean and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although marine transportation significantly contributes as well. It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide. Since most inputs come from land, either via the rivers, sewage or the atmosphere, it means that continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen, silicon, sulfur, pesticides or dust particles into the ocean. The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris, and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans. Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship pollution, bilge pollution, dredging, atmospheric pollution and, potentially, deep sea mining.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aldrin</span> Chemical compound

Aldrin is an organochlorine insecticide that was widely used until the 1990s, when it was banned in most countries. Aldrin is a member of the so-called "classic organochlorines" (COC) group of pesticides. COCs enjoyed a very sharp rise in popularity during and after World War II. Other noteworthy examples of COCs include dieldrin and DDT. After research showed that organochlorines can be highly toxic to the ecosystem through bioaccumulation, most were banned from use. Before the ban, it was heavily used as a pesticide to treat seed and soil. Aldrin and related "cyclodiene" pesticides became notorious as persistent organic pollutants.

Environmental medicine is a multidisciplinary field involving medicine, environmental science, chemistry and others, overlapping with environmental pathology. It can be viewed as the medical branch of the broader field of environmental health. The scope of this field involves studying the interactions between environment and human health, and the role of the environment in causing or mediating disease. This specialist field of study developed after the realisation that health is more widely and dramatically affected by environmental factors than previously recognized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental toxicology</span> Multidisciplinary field of science

Environmental toxicology is a multidisciplinary field of science concerned with the study of the harmful effects of various chemical, biological and physical agents on living organisms. Ecotoxicology is a subdiscipline of environmental toxicology concerned with studying the harmful effects of toxicants at the population and ecosystem levels.

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials into the atmosphere that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damage ecosystems. Health problems attributed to air pollution include premature death, cancer, organ failure, infections, behavioral changes, and other diseases. These health effects are not equally distributed across the U.S. population; there are demographic disparities by race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and education. Air pollution can derive from natural sources, such as wildfires and volcanoes, or from anthropogenic sources. Anthropogenic air pollution has affected the United States since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.

In epidemiology, environmental diseases are diseases that can be directly attributed to environmental factors. Apart from the true monogenic genetic disorders, which are rare, environment is a major determinant of the development of disease. Diet, exposure to toxins, pathogens, radiation, and chemicals found in almost all personal care products and household cleaners, stress, racism, and physical and mental abuse are causes of a large segment of non-hereditary disease. If a disease process is concluded to be the result of a combination of genetic and environmental factor influences, its etiological origin can be referred to as having a multifactorial pattern.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health and environmental impact of the petroleum industry</span>

The environmental impact of the petroleum industry is extensive and expansive due to petroleum having many uses. Crude oil and natural gas are primary energy and raw material sources that enable numerous aspects of modern daily life and the world economy. Their supply has grown quickly over the last 150 years to meet the demands of the rapidly increasing human population, creativity, knowledge, and consumerism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microplastics</span> Extremely small fragments of plastic

Microplastics are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5 mm (0.20 in) in length, according to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the European Chemicals Agency. US EPA researchers define microplastics, or MPs, as plastic particles ranging in size from 5 millimeters (mm), which is about the size of a pencil eraser, to 1 nanometer (nm). For comparison, a strand of human hair is about 80,000 nanometers wide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plastic pollution</span> Accumulation of plastic in natural ecosystems

Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects and particles in the Earth's environment that adversely affects humans, wildlife and their habitat. Plastics that act as pollutants are categorized by size into micro-, meso-, or macro debris. Plastics are inexpensive and durable, making them very adaptable for different uses; as a result, manufacturers choose to use plastic over other materials. However, the chemical structure of most plastics renders them resistant to many natural processes of degradation and as a result they are slow to degrade. Together, these two factors allow large volumes of plastic to enter the environment as mismanaged waste which persists in the ecosystem and travels throughout food webs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exposome</span> Concept on environmental exposures

The exposome is a concept used to describe environmental exposures that an individual encounters throughout life, and how these exposures impact biology and health. It encompasses both external and internal factors, including chemical, physical, biological, and social factors that may influence human health.

Particulate pollution is pollution of an environment that consists of particles suspended in some medium. There are three primary forms: atmospheric particulate matter, marine debris, and space debris. Some particles are released directly from a specific source, while others form in chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Particulate pollution can be derived from either natural sources or anthropogenic processes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microplastics and human health</span> How plastic particles affect human health

Microplastics effects on human health are of growing concern and an area of research. The tiny particles known as microplastics (MPs), have been found in various environmental and biological matrices, including air, water, food, and human tissues. Microplastics, defined as plastic fragments smaller than 5 mm, and even smaller particles such as nanoplastics (NP), particles smaller than 1000 nm in diameter, have raised concerns impacting human health. The pervasive presence of plastics in our environment has raised concerns about their long-term impacts on human health. While visible pollution caused by larger plastic items is well-documented, the hidden threat posed by nanoplastics remains under-explored. These particles originate from the degradation of larger plastics and are now found in various environmental matrices, including water, soil, and air. Given their minute size, nanoplastics can penetrate biological barriers and accumulate in human tissues, potentially leading to adverse health effects.

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