Physical hazard

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Hard hats, an example of personal protective equipment, can protect against physical hazards US Navy 080629-N-6477M-095 Builder 3rd Class Merlyna Crank and Builder Constructionman Irene L. Reeves, both assigned to Naval Mobile Construction Battalion (NMCB) 3 Det. 4, place trimming on birthing spaces being built for Afg.jpg
Hard hats, an example of personal protective equipment, can protect against physical hazards

A physical hazard is an agent, factor or circumstance that can cause harm with contact. They can be classified as type of occupational hazard or environmental hazard. Physical hazards include ergonomic hazards, radiation, heat and cold stress, vibration hazards, and noise hazards. [1] Engineering controls are often used to mitigate physical hazards. [2]

Contents

Physical hazards are a common source of injuries in many industries. [3] They are perhaps unavoidable in certain industries, such as construction and mining, but over time people have developed safety methods and procedures to manage the risks of physical danger in the workplace. Employment of children may pose special problems. [4]

A physical hazard is also a naturally occurring process that has the potential to create loss or damage. Physical hazards include earthquakes, floods, fires, and tornadoes. Physical hazards often have both human and natural elements. For example, flood problems can be affected by the natural elements of climate fluctuations and storm frequency, and by land drainage and building in a flood plain, human elements. [5] Geomagnetic storms can disrupt or damage technological infrastructure, and disorient species with magnetoception. Another physical hazard, X-rays, naturally occur from solar radiation, but have also been utilized by humans for medical purposes; however, overexposure can lead to cancer, skin burns, and tissue damage. [6]

Falls

Falls are a common cause of occupational injuries and fatalities, especially in construction, extraction, transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and maintenance. [7] Circumstances like floor holes and wall opening, misused fall protection, slippery, cluttered, or unstable walking surfaces, unprotected edges and unsafely situated ladders are associated with occupational fall injuries. [8]

According to 2014 published data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 261,930 private industry and government workers lost one or more days of work and around 798 workers died as a result of fall injuries in the workplace. [8] There was a general upward trend in fatal fall injuries which increased 25 percent overall from 2011 to 2016. [9] For carpenters, heavy and tractor-trailer truck drivers, tree trimmers and pruners, and roofers, fall injuries increased by more than 25 percent in 2016. [9] The highest rate of nonfatal fall injuries experienced in the health services, and the wholesale and retail industries, while the highest counts for fall-related deaths associated with the construction industry. [8] According to Bureau of Labor Statistics, there were total 991 construction-related fall incidents in 2016. [10] In the United States, fall-related fatalities result in a significant financial burden of estimated $70 billion annually in the form of worker's compensation and occupational fall incident related medical costs. [8] The international public health community works to reduce fall injuries at work settings by developing strategies because many other countries face similar problems in the workplace as in the United States.

Machines

A nail gun-related injury Nagel von Schussapparat in Hand - Roe ap.jpg
A nail gun-related injury

Machines are commonplace in many industries, including manufacturing, mining, construction and agriculture, [11] and can be dangerous to workers. Many machines involve moving parts, sharp edges, hot surfaces and other hazards with the potential to crush, burn, cut, shear, stab or otherwise strike or wound workers if used unsafely. [12] Various safety measures exist to minimize these hazards, including lockout-tagout procedures for machine maintenance and roll over protection systems for vehicles. [12] According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, machine-related injuries were responsible for 64,170 cases that required days away from work in 2008. More than a quarter of these cases required more than 31 days spent away from work. That same year, machines were the primary or secondary source of over 600 work-related fatalities. [13] Machines are also often involved indirectly in worker deaths and injuries, such as in cases in which a worker slips and falls, possibly upon a sharp or pointed object. Power tools, used in many industries, present a number of hazards due to sharp moving parts, vibrations, or noise. The transportation sector bears many risks for the health of commercial drivers, for example from vibration, long periods of sitting, work stress and exhaustion. These problems occur in Europe but in other parts of the world the situation is even worse. More drivers die in accidents due to security defects in vehicles. Long waiting times at borders cause that drivers are away from home and family much longer and even increase the risk of HIV infections. [14]

Confined spaces

Sewer trench with device to protect workers from failure of the sidewalls 900 mm dia Sewer Installation, Toronto, Kent Road.jpg
Sewer trench with device to protect workers from failure of the sidewalls

Confined spaces also present a work hazard. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) defines "confined space" as having limited openings for entry and exit and unfavorable natural ventilation, and which is not intended for continuous employee occupancy. Spaces of this kind can include storage tanks, ship compartments, sewers, and pipelines. [15] Confined spaces can pose a hazard not just to workers, but also to people who try to rescue them. In 2015, around 136 U.S. workers died in fatalities related to confined spaces according to the data collected in response to the annual Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) program of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. [16] Hazards like entrapment and drowning to asphyxiation and toxic chemical exposure results in the deaths and injuries that occur in these confined spaces. [16] Physical and atmospheric hazards due to confined spaces can be avoided by addressing and recognizing these hazards before entering in the confined spaces to perform work. [17]

Noise

Noise presents a fairly common workplace hazard: occupational hearing loss is the most common work‑related injury in the United States, with 22 million workers exposed to hazardous noise levels at work and an estimated $242 million spent annually on worker's compensation for hearing loss disability. [18] Noise is not the only source of occupational hearing loss; exposure to chemicals such as aromatic solvents and metals including lead, arsenic, and mercury can also cause hearing loss. [19] Naturally, noise is more of concern for certain occupations than others; musicians, [20] mine workers, [21] and construction workers [22] are exposed to higher and more constant levels of noise and therefore are at a higher risk of developing hearing loss. Since noise-induced hearing loss, while entirely preventable, is permanent and irreversible, it is vital that companies and their employees are aware of limits and prevention methods available. [23]

A man wearing ear and eye protection while using a jackhammer Colombia Jackhammer 01.jpg
A man wearing ear and eye protection while using a jackhammer

In the United States, noise is recognized as a hazard in the workplace by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Both organizations work to set and enforce standards for occupational noise exposure and ultimately prevent hearing loss. [24] [25] Examples of initiatives made by NIOSH to prevent the negative effects of noise exposure include the Buy Quiet program, which encourages employers to purchase machinery that produces lower noise levels, and the Safe‑In‑Sound Award, which was created to recognize organizations that excel in noise control. [26] [27]

Temperature

Temperature extremes can cause a danger to workers.

Cold stress

Overexposure to freezing conditions or extreme cold can result in a risk to many workers. Employees who work outdoors in the winter months such as fishers, hunters, divers, hydro and telecommunications linemen, construction workers, transportation workers, military personnel, emergency response workers, and those work in the refrigerated warehouse are especially vulnerable to cold. [28] Effects of extreme cold working conditions include: [28] [29]

Use of personal protective equipment such as insulating clothes, gloves, boots, and masks, engineering controls such as radiant heaters, and safe work practices are used to minimize the risk of cold injuries. [30]

Heat stress

Workers who are working in laundries, bakeries, restaurant kitchens, steel foundries, glass factories, brick-firing and ceramic plants, electrical utilities, smelters, and outdoor workers such as construction workers, firefighters, farmers, and mining workers are more vulnerable to exposure to extreme heat. [31] [32] Effects of heat stress include: [32] [33]

Engineering controls such as air conditioning and ventilation, training to build up a level of tolerance to work in extreme heat conditions and use of cooled protective clothing can help to reduce heat-related illnesses. [32] [33]

Electricity

Electricity poses a danger to many workers. Electrical injuries can be divided into four types: fatal electrocution, electric shock, burns, and falls caused by contact with electric energy. [34] Electrocution is one of the major hazards on construction sites. It can be fatal and can result in serious and permanent burn injuries to the skin, internal tissues and damage to the heart depending on the length and severity of the shock. [35] When electric current flows through tissues or bone, it produces heat that causes electrical burns. [36] Electrical burns cause tissue damage and need immediate medical attention. Electric shocks can result in injuries such as muscle spasms, palpitations, nausea, vomiting, collapse, and unconsciousness. [35] Faulty electrical connections and damaged electrical equipment can lead to an electric shock to workers and to others at or near the workplace. [35]

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, a total 1,738 accidents occurred due to contact with electric current between 2003 and 2010, and out of that, the highest number of electrical fatalities, 849, occurred in the construction industry. [37] Five occupations from the construction industry—electricians, roofers, painters, carpenters, and construction laborers—account for more than 32% of all electrical fatalities. [37] Improper grounding, wet conditions, damaged tools and equipment, inadequate wiring, exposed electrical parts, overhead power lines and overloaded circuits are the common electrical hazards which are found on construction sites. [38]

Electrical injuries are preventable through safe work practices like keeping electrical tools properly maintained, de-energizing electrical appliances before inspection or repair, and exercising caution when working near energized lines. [36] Personal protective equipment such as hard hats, hoods, sleeves, rubber or insulating gloves and insulating clothing can be useful to reduce any electrical accidents. [36] [38]

Sunlight

Sunlight is the most commonly known physical hazard which affects people who work outside. Outdoor workers get highest sunlight exposure during high-intensity hours between 10:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. and during the summertime. [39] The risk of getting sunburned is higher throughout these times. Some commonly used medicines such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), antihistamines, tetracyclines, thiazides, sulfa antibiotics, and diuretics increase sensitivity to sunlight and result in skin rashes and sunburn. [39] [40] Moreover, sunlight is a source of ultraviolet (UV) rays which are a form of non-ionizing radiation. UV rays directly from sunlight and indirect sun exposure, such as light reflected by snow and light-shaded sand can penetrate workers' uncovered skin. [39] Long time, continuous exposure to ultraviolet radiation results in suppression of the immune system, eye damage, skin aging, and skin cancer. [41] [42] Some non-solar sources of UV radiation, for example, projection lamps, the curing of paints and inks, germicidal lamps used in hospitals, fluorescent tubes, sunlamps, and welding arcs, can also cause adverse health effects in other workers. [41]

Personal protective equipment, engineering, and administrative controls such as the provision of shade cover, and rotating job shifts can minimize the risk of sun exposure for outdoor workers. [41] In case of non-solar sources of UV radiation, suitable engineering controls and administrative controls such as safety signs and training of employees can be useful. [41]

Vibration

Vibration has long been recognized as a serious occupational hazard. Continuously repeated exposure to high levels of vibration results in injuries or illnesses. Vibration exposure is classified into two general types: hand-arm and whole-body vibration. [43] Hand arm vibration causes direct injury to the fingers and hand and affects feeling, dexterity, and grip of the hand. It is a known causative factor for other ergonomic-related fatalities. [43] Hand-arm vibration injury associated with use of appliances or equipment with vibration such as grinders, impact drills, chipping hammers, pavement breakers, dental tools, sanders, air-powered wrenches, and saws of all types. [43] Repeated long time use of vibrating machinery results in long-term effects—independent vascular, neurosensory and musculoskeletal disorders of the hand and arm which is known as hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). [43] Whole-body vibration is one of the most common causes of lost time and production output and causes low back pain and injury due to higher than expected levels of vibration. [43] Whole-body vibration injuries associated with off-road vehicles in industries such as agriculture, forestry, mining, quarrying and with small-fast boats used off-shore.

A combination of control measures such as redesigning the appliances to reduce vibration exposure, using machines that are designed to decrease the vibration transmitted to the operator, implementing speed limits, scheduling regular work breaks, posture changes or job rotation to reduce exposure time, providing training, information and supervision on adjusting and operating equipment can be used for successful vibration exposure reduction. [44]

Other hazards

Lighting, and air pressure (high or low) can also cause work-related illness and injury. Asphyxiation is a potential work hazard in certain situations. Musculoskeletal disorders are avoided by the employment of good ergonomic design and the reduction of repeated strenuous movements or lifts. Ionizing (alpha, beta, gamma, X-ray, neutron), and non-ionizing radiation (microwave, intense infrared, radio frequency, ultraviolet, laser at visible and non-visible wavelengths), can also be a potent hazard.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Noise</span> Unwanted sound

Noise is sound, chiefly unwanted, unintentional, or harmful sound considered unpleasant, loud, or disruptive to mental or hearing faculties. From a physics standpoint, there is no distinction between noise and desired sound, as both are vibrations through a medium, such as air or water. The difference arises when the brain receives and perceives a sound.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Personal protective equipment</span> Equipment designed to help protect an individual from hazards

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemical, biohazards, and airborne particulate matter. Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational activities. Protective clothing is applied to traditional categories of clothing, and protective gear applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks, and others. PPE suits can be similar in appearance to a cleanroom suit.

Occupational noise is the amount of acoustic energy received by an employee's auditory system when they are working in the industry. Occupational noise, or industrial noise, is often a term used in occupational safety and health, as sustained exposure can cause permanent hearing damage. Occupational noise is considered an occupational hazard traditionally linked to loud industries such as ship-building, mining, railroad work, welding, and construction, but can be present in any workplace where hazardous noise is present.

Construction site safety is an aspect of construction-related activities concerned with protecting construction site workers and others from death, injury, disease or other health-related risks. Construction is an often hazardous, predominantly land-based activity where site workers may be exposed to various risks, some of which remain unrecognized. Site risks can include working at height, moving machinery and materials, power tools and electrical equipment, hazardous substances, plus the effects of excessive noise, dust and vibration. The leading causes of construction site fatalities are falls, electrocutions, crush injuries, and caught-between injuries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational hygiene</span> Management of workplace health hazards

Occupational hygiene or industrial hygiene (IH) is the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, control, and confirmation (ARECC) of protection from risks associated with exposures to hazards in, or arising from, the workplace that may result in injury, illness, impairment, or affect the well-being of workers and members of the community. These hazards or stressors are typically divided into the categories biological, chemical, physical, ergonomic and psychosocial. The risk of a health effect from a given stressor is a function of the hazard multiplied by the exposure to the individual or group. For chemicals, the hazard can be understood by the dose response profile most often based on toxicological studies or models. Occupational hygienists work closely with toxicologists (see Toxicology) for understanding chemical hazards, physicists (see Physics) for physical hazards, and physicians and microbiologists for biological hazards (see Microbiology, Tropical medicine, Infection). Environmental and occupational hygienists are considered experts in exposure science and exposure risk management. Depending on an individual's type of job, a hygienist will apply their exposure science expertise for the protection of workers, consumers and/or communities.

The permissible exposure limit is a legal limit in the United States for exposure of an employee to a chemical substance or physical agent such as high level noise. Permissible exposure limits were established by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Most of OSHA's PELs were issued shortly after adoption of the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act in 1970.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational hazard</span> Hazard experienced in the workplace

An occupational hazard is a hazard experienced in the workplace. This encompasses many types of hazards, including chemical hazards, biological hazards (biohazards), psychosocial hazards, and physical hazards. In the United States, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conduct workplace investigations and research addressing workplace health and safety hazards resulting in guidelines. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) establishes enforceable standards to prevent workplace injuries and illnesses. In the EU, a similar role is taken by EU-OSHA.

A recommended exposure limit (REL) is an occupational exposure limit that has been recommended by the United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. The REL is a level that NIOSH believes would be protective of worker safety and health over a working lifetime if used in combination with engineering and work practice controls, exposure and medical monitoring, posting and labeling of hazards, worker training and personal protective equipment. To formulate these recommendations, NIOSH evaluates all known and available medical, biological, engineering, chemical, trade, and other information. Although not legally enforceable limits, RELS are transmitted to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) or the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) of the U.S. Department of Labor for use in promulgating legal standards.

Workplace health surveillance or occupational health surveillance (U.S.) is the ongoing systematic collection, analysis, and dissemination of exposure and health data on groups of workers. The Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health at its 12th Session in 1995 defined an occupational health surveillance system as "a system which includes a functional capacity for data collection, analysis and dissemination linked to occupational health programmes".

Prevention through design (PtD), also called safety by design usually in Europe, is the concept of applying methods to minimize occupational hazards early in the design process, with an emphasis on optimizing employee health and safety throughout the life cycle of materials and processes. It is a concept and movement that encourages construction or product designers to "design out" health and safety risks during design development. The process also encourages the various stakeholders within a construction project to be collaborative and share the responsibilities of workers' safety evenly. The concept supports the view that along with quality, programme and cost; safety is determined during the design stage. It increases the cost-effectiveness of enhancements to occupational safety and health.

An occupational fatality is a death that occurs while a person is at work or performing work related tasks. Occupational fatalities are also commonly called "occupational deaths" or "work-related deaths/fatalities" and can occur in any industry or occupation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Buy Quiet</span>

Buy Quiet is an American health and safety initiative to select and purchase the lowest noise emitting power tools and machinery in order to reduce occupational and community noise exposure. Buy Quiet Programs are examples of noise control strategies. Buy Quiet is part of the larger Hearing Loss Prevention Program, and is an example of Prevention Through Design, which seeks to reduce occupational injury through prevention considerations in designs that impact workers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational safety and health</span> Field concerned with the safety, health and welfare of people at work

Occupational safety and health (OSH) or occupational health and safety (OHS) is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the safety, health, and welfare of people at work. OSH is related to the fields of occupational medicine and occupational hygiene and aligns with workplace health promotion initiatives. OSH also protects all the general public who may be affected by the occupational environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Safe-in-Sound Award</span>

The Safe-in-Sound Excellence in Hearing Loss Prevention Award is an occupational health and safety award that was established in 2007 through a partnership between the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the National Hearing Conservation Association (NHCA). In 2018, the partnership was extended to include the Council for Accreditation in Occupational Hearing Conservation (CAOHC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational hearing loss</span> Form of hearing loss

Occupational hearing loss (OHL) is hearing loss that occurs as a result of occupational hazards, such as excessive noise and ototoxic chemicals. Noise is a common workplace hazard, and recognized as the risk factor for noise-induced hearing loss and tinnitus but it is not the only risk factor that can result in a work-related hearing loss. Also, noise-induced hearing loss can result from exposures that are not restricted to the occupational setting.

Occupational heat stress is the net load to which a worker is exposed from the combined contributions of metabolic heat, environmental factors, and clothing worn, which results in an increase in heat storage in the body. Heat stress can result in heat-related illnesses, such as heat stroke, hyperthermia, heat exhaustion, heat cramps, heat rashes, and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Although heat exhaustion is less severe, heat stroke is a medical emergency and requires emergency treatment, which if not provided, can lead to death.

Engineering controls are strategies designed to protect workers from hazardous conditions by placing a barrier between the worker and the hazard or by removing a hazardous substance through air ventilation. Engineering controls involve a physical change to the workplace itself, rather than relying on workers' behavior or requiring workers to wear protective clothing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational dust exposure</span> Occupational hazard in agriculture, construction, forestry, and mining

Occupational dust exposure occurs when small particles are generated at the workplace through the disturbance/agitation of rock/mineral, dry grain, timber, fiber, or other material. When these small particles become suspended in the air, they can pose a risk to the health of those who breath in the contaminated air.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hearing protection device</span> Protection device for auditory organs

A hearing protection device, also known as a HPD, is an ear protection device worn in or over the ears while exposed to hazardous noise and provide hearing protection to help prevent noise-induced hearing loss. HPDs reduce the level of the noise entering the ear. HPDs can also protect against other effects of noise exposure such as tinnitus and hyperacusis. There are many different types of HPDs available for use, including earmuffs, earplugs, electronic hearing protection devices, and semi-insert devices.

There are unique occupational health issues in the casino industry, many of which are attributed to repetitive tasks and long-term exposures to hazards in the casino environment. Among these issues are cancers resulting from exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke, musculoskeletal injury (MSI) from repetitive motion injuries while running table games over many hours, and health issues associated with shift work. Safety and regulatory agencies in the United States have implemented regulatory measures to address the specific risks associated with workers in the casino industry, and have made efforts to identify additional possible risks to casino workers, including noise-induced hearing loss and heavy metal poisoning from exposure to dust from coins.

References

  1. ↑ "Susan Harwood Grant Products By Topic". www.osha.gov. Retrieved 2015-09-03.
  2. ↑ "CDC - Workplace Survey Reports | NIOSH". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-08-31.
  3. ↑ "Hazardous Work". International Labour Organization. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
  4. ↑ International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) (2011). Children in hazardous work What we know What we need to do (PDF). International Labour Organization. ISBN   978-92-2-124918-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2019. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
  5. ↑ Smith, Keith (2001). Environmental hazards: assessing risk and reducing disaster. Routledge physical environment series (3. ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-22464-2.
  6. ↑ Ropeik, David; Gray, George (2002). Risk: a practical guide for deciding what's really safe and what's really dangerous in the world around you. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN   978-0-618-14372-6.
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  8. 1 2 3 4 "CDC - Falls in the Workplace - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic". www.cdc.gov. 2018-04-02. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
  9. 1 2 "NATIONAL CENSUS OF FATAL OCCUPATIONAL INJURIES IN 2016" (PDF). Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved April 15, 2018.
  10. ↑ "OSHA's Fall Prevention Campaign | Occupational Safety and Health Administration". www.osha.gov. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
  11. ↑ "International Hazard Datasheets on Occupations (HDO)". International Labour Organization. Retrieved December 26, 2012. The International Hazard Datasheets on Occupations is a multipurpose information resource containing information on the hazards, risks and notions of prevention related to a specific occupation. The datasheets are intended for those professionally concerned with health and safety at work.
  12. 1 2 "Machine Safety". NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
  13. ↑ Harris, James R.; Current., Richard S. (May 2012). "Machine Safety: New & Updated Consensus Standards". Prof Saf. 57 (5): 50–57.
  14. ↑ Ute Papkalla (December 2012). "Underestimated production factor". D+C Development and Cooperation. Archived from the original on 2013-12-15.
  15. ↑ "Confined Spaces". Workplace Safety & Health Topics. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
  16. 1 2 "NFPA Journal - Confined Space, March April 2017". www.nfpa.org. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
  17. ↑ "Atmospheric Testing and the New OSHA Construction Confined Spaces Standard -- Occupational Health & Safety". Occupational Health & Safety. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
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  19. ↑ John R. Franks; Mark R. Stephenson; Carol J. Merry (June 1996). "Preventing Occupational Hearing Loss: A Practical Guide" (PDF). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
  20. ↑ Kardous, Chuck; Morata, Thais; Themann, Christa; Spears, Patricia; Afanuh, Sue (July 7, 2015). "Turn it Down: Reducing the Risk of Hearing Disorders Among Musicians". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
  21. ↑ "Mining Topic: Hearing Loss Prevention Overview". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2016-07-07.
  22. ↑ "National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Factsheet" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
  23. ↑ "Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Noise Exposure (98-126)". Center for Disease Control and Prevention. June 1998. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
  24. ↑ "Noise and Hearing Loss Prevention". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2016-07-07.
  25. ↑ "Safety and Health Topics: Occupational Noise Exposure". United States Department of Labor. Retrieved 2016-07-07.
  26. ↑ "Buy Quiet". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2016-07-07.
  27. ↑ "Excellence in Hearing Loss Prevention Award". Safe-in-Sound. Retrieved 2016-07-07.
  28. 1 2 Safety, Government of Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and. "Cold Environments - General : OSH Answers". www.ccohs.ca. Retrieved 2018-04-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ↑ "CDC - Cold Stress - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2018-04-21.
  30. ↑ Safety, Government of Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and. "Cold Environments - Working in the Cold : OSH Answers". www.ccohs.ca. Retrieved 2018-04-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ↑ "Safety and Health Topics | Occupational Heat Exposure | Occupational Safety and Health Administration". www.osha.gov. Retrieved 2018-04-21.
  32. 1 2 3 Safety, Government of Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and. "Hot Environments - Health Effects and First Aid : OSH Answers". www.ccohs.ca. Retrieved 2018-04-21.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. 1 2 "NIOSH Heat Stress Topic Page". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2017-08-03. Retrieved 2018-04-21.
  34. ↑ "Electrical Safety". NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
  35. 1 2 3 "Electrical risks". Australian Government Comcare. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  36. 1 2 3 "Controlling Electrical Hazards". www.osha.gov. Retrieved 2018-04-14.
  37. 1 2 "ESFI Occupational Injury and Fatality Statistics". www.esfi.org. Retrieved 2018-04-19.
  38. 1 2 "Big Four Construction Hazards: Electrical Hazards" (PDF). Occupational Safety and Health Administration . Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2018.
  39. 1 2 3 "CDC - UV Radiation - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic". www.cdc.gov. 2017-08-03. Retrieved 2018-03-08.
  40. ↑ "Medications May Increase Sensitivity To Sunlight". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2018-03-08.
  41. 1 2 3 4 "Ultraviolet radiation as a hazard in the workplace" (PDF). World Health Organization. Retrieved March 5, 2018.
  42. ↑ "UV:harmful effects". enhs.umn.edu. Retrieved 2018-03-08.
  43. 1 2 3 4 5 "Vibration Hazards in the Workplace: The Basics of Risk Assessment -- Occupational Health & Safety". Occupational Health & Safety. Retrieved 2018-04-19.
  44. ↑ "Vibration". Australian Government Comcare. Retrieved 2018-04-14.
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