Tinnitus

Last updated

Tinnitus
Pronunciation
Specialty Otorhinolaryngology, audiology, neurology
Symptoms Hearing sound when no external sound is present [1]
Complications Poor concentration, anxiety, depression [2]
Usual onsetGradual [3]
Causes Noise-induced hearing loss, ear infections, disease of the heart or blood vessels, Ménière's disease, brain tumors, inner ear tumors, emotional stress, traumatic brain injury, excessive earwax [2] [4]
Diagnostic method Based on symptoms, audiogram, neurological exam [1] [3]
Treatment Counseling, sound generators, hearing aids [2] [5]
Frequency~12.5% [5]

Tinnitus is a condition when a person hears a ringing sound or a different variety of sound when no corresponding external sound is present and other people cannot hear it. [1] Nearly everyone experiences faint "normal tinnitus" in a completely quiet room; but this is of concern only if it is bothersome, interferes with normal hearing, or is associated with other problems. [6] The word tinnitus comes from the Latin tinnire, "to ring". [3] In some people, it interferes with concentration, and can be associated with anxiety and depression. [7] [8]

Contents

Tinnitus is usually associated with hearing loss and decreased comprehension of speech in noisy environments. [2] It is common, affecting about 10–15% of people. Most tolerate it well, and it is a significant problem in only 1–2% of people. [5] It can trigger a fight-or-flight response, as the brain may perceive it as dangerous and important. [9] [10] [11]

Rather than a disease, tinnitus is a symptom that may result from a variety of underlying causes and may be generated at any level of the auditory system as well as outside that system. The most common causes are hearing damage, noise-induced hearing loss, or age-related hearing loss, known as presbycusis. [2] Other causes include ear infections, disease of the heart or blood vessels, Ménière's disease, brain tumors, acoustic neuromas (tumors on the auditory nerves of the ear), migraines, temporomandibular joint disorders, exposure to certain medications, a previous head injury, and earwax. It can suddenly emerge during a period of emotional stress. [4] [3] [2] [12] [13] It is more common in those with depression. [3]

The diagnosis of tinnitus is usually based on a patient's description of the symptoms they are experiencing. [3] Such a diagnosis is commonly supported by an audiogram, and an otolaryngological and neurological examination. [1] [3] How much tinnitus interferes with a person's life may be quantified with questionnaires. [3] If certain problems are found, medical imaging, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), may be performed. Other tests are suitable when tinnitus occurs with the same rhythm as the heartbeat. [3] Rarely, the sound may be heard by someone other than the patient by using a stethoscope, in which case it is known as "objective tinnitus." [3] Occasionally, spontaneous otoacoustic emissions, sounds produced normally by the inner ear, may result in tinnitus. [14]

Measures to prevent tinnitus include avoiding chronic or extended exposure to loud noise, and limiting exposure to ototoxic drugs and substances. [2] [15] If there is an underlying cause, treating that cause may lead to improvements. [3] Otherwise, typically, tinnitus management involves psychoeducation or counseling, such as talk therapy. [5] Sound generators or hearing aids may help. [2] No medication directly targets tinnitus.

Signs and symptoms

Tinnitus is often described as ringing, but it may also sound like clicking, buzzing, hissing, or roaring. [4] It may be soft or loud, low- or high-pitched, and may seem to come from either one or both ears, or from the head itself. It may be intermittent or continuous. In some individuals, its intensity may be changed by shoulder, neck, head, tongue, jaw, or eye movements. [16]

Course

Due to variations in study designs, data on the course of tinnitus shows few consistent results. Generally, prevalence increases with age in adults, and the ratings of annoyance increase with persistence at follow up. [17] [18] [19]

Psychological effects

Although it is an annoying condition to which most people adapt, persistent tinnitus may cause anxiety and depression in some people. [20] [21] Tinnitus annoyance is more strongly associated with the psychological condition of the person than the loudness or frequency range of the perceived sound. [22] [23] Psychological problems such as depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances, and concentration difficulties are common in those with strongly annoying tinnitus. [24] [25] 45% of people with tinnitus have an anxiety disorder at some time in their lives. [26]

Psychological research has focused on the tinnitus distress reaction to account for differences in tinnitus severity. [24] [27] [28] [29] The research indicates that conditioning at the initial perception of tinnitus linked it with negative emotions, such as fear and anxiety. [30]

Types

Commonly tinnitus is classified into "subjective and objective tinnitus". [3] Tinnitus is usually subjective, meaning that the sounds the person hears are not detectable by means currently available to physicians and hearing technicians. [3] Subjective tinnitus has also been called "tinnitus aurium", "non-auditory", or "non-vibratory" tinnitus. In rare cases, tinnitus can be heard by someone else using a stethoscope. Even more rarely, in some cases it can be measured as a spontaneous otoacoustic emission (SOAE) in the ear canal. This is classified as objective tinnitus, [3] also called "pseudo-tinnitus" or "vibratory" tinnitus.

Subjective tinnitus

Subjective tinnitus is the most frequent type. It can have many causes, but most commonly it results from hearing loss. When it is caused by disorders of the inner ear or auditory nerve, it can be called "otic" (from the Greek word for ear). [31] These otological or neurological disorders include those triggered by infections, drugs, or trauma. [32] A cause is traumatic noise exposure that damages hair cells in the inner ear. [33] Some evidence suggests that long-term exposure to noise pollution from heavy traffic may increase the risk of developing tinnitus. [34]

When there does not seem to be a connection with a disorder of the inner ear or auditory nerve, tinnitus can be called "non-otic". In 30% of cases, tinnitus is influenced by the somatosensory system; for instance, people can increase or decrease their tinnitus by moving their face, head, jaw, or neck. [35] This type is called somatic or craniocervical tinnitus, since it is only head or neck movements that have an effect. [31]

Some tinnitus may be caused by neuroplastic changes in the central auditory pathway. In this theory, the disturbance of sensory input caused by hearing loss results in such changes [36] as a homeostatic response of neurons in the central auditory system, causing tinnitus. [37] When some frequencies of sound are lost to hearing loss, the auditory system compensates by amplifying those frequencies, eventually producing sound sensations at those frequencies constantly even when there is no corresponding external sound.

Hearing loss

The most common cause of tinnitus is hearing loss. Hearing loss may have many different causes, but among those with tinnitus, the major cause is cochlear injury. [36]

In many cases no underlying cause is identified. [2] [38]

Ototoxic drugs also may cause subjective tinnitus, as they may cause hearing loss, [15] or increase the damage done by exposure to loud noise. [39] This damage may occur even at doses not considered ototoxic. [40] More than 260 medications have been reported to cause tinnitus as a side effect. [41]

Tinnitus can also occur from the discontinuation of therapeutic doses of benzodiazepines. It can sometimes be a protracted symptom of benzodiazepine withdrawal and may persist for many months. [42] [43] Medications such as bupropion may also cause tinnitus. [44]

Associated factors

Factors associated with tinnitus include: [45]

Objective tinnitus

A specific type of tinnitus, objective tinnitus, is characterized by hearing the sounds of one's own muscle contractions or pulse, typically a result of sounds that have been created by the movement of jaw muscles or sounds related to blood flow in the neck or face. [50] It is sometimes caused by an involuntary twitching of a muscle or a group of muscles (myoclonus) or by a vascular condition. In some cases, tinnitus is generated by muscle spasms around the middle ear. [50]

Spontaneous otoacoustic emissions (SOAEs)—faint high-frequency tones that are produced in the inner ear and can be measured in the ear canal with a sensitive microphone—may also cause tinnitus. [14] About 8% of those with SOAEs and tinnitus have SOAE-linked tinnitus,[ need quotation to verify ] while the percentage of all cases of tinnitus caused by SOAEs is estimated at 4%. [14]

Pediatric tinnitus

Children may be subject to pulsatile or continuous tinnitus, involving anomalies and variants of the vascular parts [51] affecting the middle/inner ear structures. CT scans may be used to check the integrity of the structures, and MR scans can evaluate nerves and potential masses or malformations. Early diagnosis can prevent long-term impairments to development. [52]

Pulsatile tinnitus

Some people experience a sound that beats in time with their pulse, known as pulsatile tinnitus or vascular tinnitus. [53] Pulsatile tinnitus is usually objective in nature, resulting from altered blood flow or increased blood turbulence near the ear, such as from atherosclerosis or venous hum, [54] but it can also arise as a subjective phenomenon from an increased awareness of blood flow in the ear. [53]

The differential diagnosis for pulsatile tinnitus is wide and includes vascular etiologies, tumors, disorders of the middle ear or inner ear, and other intracranial pathologies. [55] Vascular causes of pulsatile tinnitus include venous causes (e.g., high riding or dehiscent jugular bulb, sigmoid sinus diverticulum), arterial causes (e.g., cervical atherosclerosis, potentially life-threatening conditions such as carotid artery aneurysm [56] or carotid artery dissection), or dural arteriovenous fistula or arteriovenous malformations. [57]

Pulsatile tinnitus may also indicate vasculitis, or more specifically, giant cell arteritis. Pulsatile tinnitus may also be caused by tumors such as paragangliomas (e.g., glomus tympanicum, glomus jugulare) or hemangiomas (e.g., facial nerve or cavernous). Middle ear causes of pulsatile tinnitus include patulous eustachian tube, otosclerosis, or middle ear myoclonus (e.g., stapedial or tensor tympani myoclonus). The most common inner ear cause of pulsatile tinnitus is superior semicircular canal dehiscence. [58] Pulsatile tinnitus may also indicate idiopathic intracranial hypertension. [59] Pulsatile tinnitus can be a symptom of intracranial vascular abnormalities and should be evaluated for irregular noises of blood flow (bruits). [60]

Pathophysiology

Tinnitus may be caused by increased neural activity in the auditory brainstem, where the brain processes sounds, causing some auditory nerve cells to become overexcited. The basis of this theory is that many with tinnitus also have hearing loss. [61]

Three reviews in 2016 emphasized the large range and possible combinations of pathologies involved in tinnitus, which result in a great variety of symptoms and specifically adapted therapies. [62] [63] [64] [65]

Diagnosis

The diagnostic approach is based on a history of the condition and an examination of the head, neck, and neurological system. [38] Typically an audiogram is done, and occasionally medical imaging or electronystagmography. [38] Treatable conditions may include middle ear infection, acoustic neuroma, concussion, and otosclerosis. [66]

Evaluation of tinnitus can include a hearing test (audiogram), measurement of acoustic parameters of the tinnitus like pitch and loudness, and psychological assessment of comorbid conditions like depression, anxiety, and stress that are associated with severity of the tinnitus.[ citation needed ]

One definition of tinnitus, in contrast to normal ear noise experience, is that tinnitus lasts five minutes at least twice a week. [67] However, people with tinnitus often experience the noise more frequently than this. Tinnitus can be present constantly or intermittently. Some people with constant tinnitus might not be aware of it all the time, but only, for example, during the night when there is less environmental noise to mask it. Chronic tinnitus can be defined as tinnitus with a duration of six months or more. [68]

Audiology

Since most people with tinnitus also have hearing loss, a pure tone hearing test resulting in an audiogram may help diagnose a cause. An audiogram may also facilitate fitting of a hearing aid in those cases where hearing loss is significant. The pitch of tinnitus is often in the range of the hearing loss.

Psychoacoustics

Acoustic qualification of tinnitus includes measurement of several acoustic parameters like frequency in cases of monotone tinnitus or frequency range and bandwidth in cases of narrow band noise tinnitus[ clarification needed ], loudness in dB above hearing threshold at the indicated frequency, mixing-point[ clarification needed ], and minimum masking level. [69] In most cases, tinnitus pitch or frequency range is between 5 kHz and 10 kHz, [70] and loudness between 5 and 15  dB above the hearing threshold. [71]

Another relevant parameter of tinnitus is residual inhibition: the temporary suppression or disappearance of tinnitus following a period of masking. The degree of residual inhibition may indicate how effective tinnitus maskers would be as treatment. [72] [73]

An assessment of hyperacusis, a frequent accompaniment of tinnitus, [74] may also be made. [75] Hyperacusis is related to negative reactions to sound and can take many forms. One parameter that can be measured is Loudness Discomfort Level (LDL) in dB, the subjective level of acute discomfort at specified frequencies over the frequency range of hearing. This defines a dynamic range between the hearing threshold at that frequency and the loudness discomfort level. A compressed dynamic range over a particular frequency range can be associated with hyperacusis. Normal hearing threshold is generally defined as 0–20 decibels (dB). Normal loudness discomfort levels are 85–90+ dB, with some authorities citing 100 dB. A dynamic range of 55 dB or less is indicative of hyperacusis. [76] [77]

Severity

Tinnitus is often rated on a scale from "slight" to "severe" according to the effects it has, such as interference with sleep, quiet activities, and normal daily activities. [78]

Assessment of psychological processes related to tinnitus involves measurement of tinnitus severity and distress, as measured subjectively by validated self-report tinnitus questionnaires. [24] Such questionnaires measure the degree of psychological distress and handicap associated with tinnitus, including effects on hearing, lifestyle, health, and emotional functioning. [79] [80] [81] A broader assessment of general functioning, such as levels of anxiety, depression, stress, life stressors, and sleep difficulties, is also important in the assessment of tinnitus due to higher risk of negative well-being across these areas, which may be affected by or exacerbate the tinnitus symptoms. [82]

Current assessment measures aim to identify levels of distress and interference, coping responses, and perceptions of tinnitus to inform treatment and monitor progress. However, wide variability, inconsistencies, and lack of consensus regarding assessment methodology are evidenced in the literature, limiting comparison of treatment effectiveness. [83] Developed to guide diagnosis or classify severity, most tinnitus questionnaires have been shown to be treatment-sensitive outcome measures. [84] [ need quotation to verify ]

Pulsatile tinnitus

If examination reveals a bruit (sound due to turbulent blood flow), imaging studies such as transcranial doppler (TCD) or magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) should be performed. [85] [86] [87]

Differential diagnosis

Other potential sources of the sounds normally associated with tinnitus should be ruled out. For instance, two recognized sources of high-pitched sounds might be electromagnetic fields common in modern wiring and various sound signal transmissions. A common and often misdiagnosed condition that mimics tinnitus is radio frequency (RF) hearing, in which subjects hear objectively audible high-pitched transmission frequencies that sound similar to tinnitus. [88] [89]

Prevention

Safety sign from the UK Government Regulations requiring ear protection HSR 1996 II 3.3c.svg
Safety sign from the UK Government Regulations requiring ear protection

Prolonged exposure to loud sound or noise levels can lead to tinnitus. [90] Custom made ear plugs or other measures can help with prevention. Employers may use hearing loss prevention programs to help educate and prevent dangerous levels of exposure to noise. Government organizations set regulations to ensure employees, if following the protocol, should have minimal risk to permanent damage to their hearing. [91]

Certain groups are advised to wear ear plugs to avoid the risk of tinnitus, such as that caused by overexposure to loud noises like wind noise for motorcycle riders. [92] This includes military personnel, [39] musicians, [93] DJs, [94] agricultural workers, [95] and construction workers [96] as people in those occupations are at a greater risk compared to the general population.

Several medicines have ototoxic effects, which can have a cumulative effect that increases the damage done by noise. [39] If ototoxic medications must be administered, close attention by the physician to prescription details, such as dose and dosage interval, can reduce the damage done. [15] [97] [98] [99]

Management

If a specific underlying cause is determined, treating it may lead to improvements. [3] Otherwise, the primary treatment for tinnitus is talk therapy, [5] sound therapy, or hearing aids. There are no effective drugs that treat tinnitus. [3] [100] [101]

Psychological

The best-supported treatment for tinnitus is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). [5] [84] [102] It decreases the stress those with tinnitus feel. [103] This appears to be independent of any effect on depression or anxiety. [102] Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) also shows promise in the treatment of tinnitus. [104] Relaxation techniques may also help. [3] A clinical protocol called Progressive Tinnitus Management has been developed by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs. [105]

Sound-based interventions

The application of sound therapy by either hearing aids or tinnitus maskers may help the brain ignore the specific tinnitus frequency. Although these methods are poorly supported by evidence, there are no negative effects. [3] [106] [107] There are several approaches for tinnitus sound therapy. The first is sound modification to compensate for the individual's hearing loss. The second is tailored music therapy, notched at the tinnitus frequency, which may affect lateral inhibition of the notched neural region, suppressing tinnitus. [108] [109]

There is some tentative evidence supporting tinnitus retraining therapy, which aims to reduce tinnitus-related neuronal activity. [3] [110] [109] An alternative tinnitus treatment uses mobile applications that include various methods including masking, sound therapy, and relaxation exercises. [111] [112] Such applications can work as a separate device or as a hearing aid control system. [113]

Neuromonics is another sound-based intervention. Its protocol follows the principle of systematic desensitization and involves a structured rehabilitation program lasting 12 months. Neuromonics therapy employs customized sound signals delivered through a device worn by the patient, which aims to target the specific frequency range associated with their tinnitus perception. [114]

Physical therapy

Physical therapy for tinnitus focuses on relaxing jaw and neck muscles that may contribute to symptoms. Muscle tension, particularly in the jaw muscles like the masseter and medial pterygoid, can radiate to the ears, leading to somatic tinnitus. Specialized physical therapists use neuromuscular techniques to alleviate tension in these areas, which may reduce tinnitus intensity and associated pain in connected areas, such as the jaw, teeth, and ears. [115]

Medications

As of 2018 there were no medications effective for idiopathic tinnitus. [3] [90] [116] There is not enough evidence to determine if antidepressants [117] or acamprosate are useful. [118] There are conflicting studies regarding the effectiveness of benzodiazepines for tinnitus. [3] [116] [119] [120] Usefulness of melatonin, as of 2015, is unclear. [121] It is unclear if anticonvulsants are useful for treating tinnitus. [3] [122] Steroid injections into the middle ear also do not seem to be effective. [123] [124] There is no evidence to suggest that the use of betahistine to treat tinnitus is effective. [125]

Botulinum toxin injection has succeeded in some of the rare cases of objective tinnitus from a palatal tremor. [126]

Caroverine is used in a few countries to treat tinnitus. [127] The evidence for its usefulness is very weak. [128]

Neuromodulation

In 2020, information about clinical trials indicated that bimodal neuromodulation may reduce the symptoms of tinnitus. It is a noninvasive technique that involves applying an electrical stimulus to the tongue while also administering sounds. [129] Equipment associated with the treatments is available through physicians. Studies with it and similar devices continue in several research centers.[ citation needed ]

In March 2023, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Neuromod's Lenire device as a treatment option for tinnitus. [130] [131] [132] In June 2024, the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) announced it would begin offering the treatment to veterans with tinnitus, making it the first bimodal neuromodulation device to be awarded a Federal Supply Schedule (FSS) contract from the US Government. [132]

Some evidence supports neuromodulation techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, [3] [133] transcranial direct current stimulation, and neurofeedback.

Alternative medicine

Ginkgo biloba does not appear to be effective. [116] [134] The American Academy of Otolaryngology recommends against taking melatonin or zinc supplements to relieve symptoms of tinnitus, and reported that evidence for the efficacy of many dietary supplements (such as lipoflavonoids, garlic, traditional Chinese/Korean herbal medicine, honeybee larvae, and various other vitamins and minerals, as well as homeopathic preparations) did not exist. [90] A 2016 Cochrane Review also concluded that evidence was not sufficient to support taking zinc supplements to reduce symptoms associated with tinnitus. [135]

Prognosis

While there is no cure, most people with tinnitus get used to it over time; for a minority, it remains a significant problem. [5]

Epidemiology

Adults

Tinnitus affects 10–15% of people. [5] About a third of North Americans over 55 experience it. [136] It affects one third of adults at some time in their lives, whereas 10–15% are disturbed enough to seek medical evaluation. [137] 70 million people in Europe are estimated to have tinnitus. [138] [139]

Children

Tinnitus is commonly thought of as a symptom of adulthood, and is often overlooked in children. Children with hearing loss have a high incidence of pediatric tinnitus, even though they do not express the condition or its effect on their lives. [140] [141] Children do not generally report tinnitus spontaneously and their complaints may not be taken seriously. [142] Among those who do complain, there is an increased likelihood of associated otological or neurological pathology such as migraine, juvenile Meniere's disease, or chronic suppurative otitis media. [143] Its reported prevalence varies from 12 to 36% in children with normal hearing thresholds, and up to 66% in children with a hearing loss. Approximately 3–10% of children have been reported to be troubled by tinnitus. [144]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hearing loss</span> Partial or total inability to hear

Hearing loss is a partial or total inability to hear. Hearing loss may be present at birth or acquired at any time afterwards. Hearing loss may occur in one or both ears. In children, hearing problems can affect the ability to acquire spoken language, and in adults it can create difficulties with social interaction and at work. Hearing loss can be temporary or permanent. Hearing loss related to age usually affects both ears and is due to cochlear hair cell loss. In some people, particularly older people, hearing loss can result in loneliness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ménière's disease</span> Disorder of the inner ear

Ménière's disease (MD) is a disease of the inner ear that is characterized by potentially severe and incapacitating episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, hearing loss, and a feeling of fullness in the ear. Typically, only one ear is affected initially, but over time, both ears may become involved. Episodes generally last from 20 minutes to a few hours. The time between episodes varies. The hearing loss and ringing in the ears can become constant over time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Organ of Corti</span> Receptor organ for hearing

The organ of Corti, or spiral organ, is the receptor organ for hearing and is located in the mammalian cochlea. This highly varied strip of epithelial cells allows for transduction of auditory signals into nerve impulses' action potential. Transduction occurs through vibrations of structures in the inner ear causing displacement of cochlear fluid and movement of hair cells at the organ of Corti to produce electrochemical signals.


Ototoxicity is the property of being toxic to the ear (oto-), specifically the cochlea or auditory nerve and sometimes the vestibular system, for example, as a side effect of a drug. The effects of ototoxicity can be reversible and temporary, or irreversible and permanent. It has been recognized since the 19th century. There are many well-known ototoxic drugs used in clinical situations, and they are prescribed, despite the risk of hearing disorders, for very serious health conditions. Ototoxic drugs include antibiotics, loop diuretics, and platinum-based chemotherapy agents. A number of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) have also been shown to be ototoxic. This can result in sensorineural hearing loss, dysequilibrium, or both. Some environmental and occupational chemicals have also been shown to affect the auditory system and interact with noise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sensorineural hearing loss</span> Hearing loss caused by an inner ear or vestibulocochlear nerve defect

Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) is a type of hearing loss in which the root cause lies in the inner ear, sensory organ, or the vestibulocochlear nerve. SNHL accounts for about 90% of reported hearing loss. SNHL is usually permanent and can be mild, moderate, severe, profound, or total. Various other descriptors can be used depending on the shape of the audiogram, such as high frequency, low frequency, U-shaped, notched, peaked, or flat.

Hyperacusis is an increased sensitivity to sound and a low tolerance for environmental noise. Definitions of hyperacusis can vary significantly; it often revolves around damage to or dysfunction of the stapes bone, stapedius muscle or tensor tympani (eardrum). It is often categorized into four subtypes: loudness, pain, annoyance, and fear. It can be a highly debilitating hearing disorder.

Unilateral hearing loss (UHL) is a type of hearing impairment where there is normal hearing in one ear and impaired hearing in the other ear.

Presbycusis, or age-related hearing loss, is the cumulative effect of aging on hearing. It is a progressive and irreversible bilateral symmetrical age-related sensorineural hearing loss resulting from degeneration of the cochlea or associated structures of the inner ear or auditory nerves. The hearing loss is most marked at higher frequencies. Hearing loss that accumulates with age but is caused by factors other than normal aging is not presbycusis, although differentiating the individual effects of distinct causes of hearing loss can be difficult.

Tinnitus retraining therapy (TRT) is a form of habituation therapy designed to help people who experience tinnitus—a ringing, buzzing, hissing, or other sound heard when no external sound source is present. Two key components of TRT directly follow from the neurophysiological model of tinnitus: Directive counseling aims to help the sufferer reclassify tinnitus to a category of neutral signals, and sound therapy weakens tinnitus-related neuronal activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health effects from noise</span> Health consequences of exposure to elevated sound levels

Noise health effects are the physical and psychological health consequences of regular exposure to consistent elevated sound levels. Noise from traffic, in particular, is considered by the World Health Organization to be one of the worst environmental stressors for humans, second only to air pollution. Elevated workplace or environmental noise can cause hearing impairment, tinnitus, hypertension, ischemic heart disease, annoyance, and sleep disturbance. Changes in the immune system and birth defects have been also attributed to noise exposure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Noise-induced hearing loss</span> Medical condition

Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) is a hearing impairment resulting from exposure to loud sound. People may have a loss of perception of a narrow range of frequencies or impaired perception of sound including sensitivity to sound or ringing in the ears. When exposure to hazards such as noise occur at work and is associated with hearing loss, it is referred to as occupational hearing loss.

The semicircular canal dehiscence (SCD) is a category of rare neurotological diseases/disorders affecting the inner ears, which gathers the superior SCD, lateral SCD and posterior SCD. These SCDs induce SCD syndromes (SCDSs), which define specific sets of hearing and balance symptoms. This entry mainly deals with the superior SCDS.

Misophonia is a disorder of decreased tolerance to specific sounds or their associated stimuli, or cues. These cues, known as "triggers", are experienced as unpleasant or distressing and tend to evoke strong negative emotional, physiological, and behavioral responses not seen in most other people. Misophonia and the behaviors that people with misophonia often use to cope with it can adversely affect the ability to achieve life goals, communicate effectively, and enjoy social situations. Originating within the field of audiology in 2001, the condition remained largely undescribed in the clinical and research literature until 2013, when a group of psychiatrists at Amsterdam University Medical Center published a detailed misophonia case series and proposed the condition as a "new psychiatric disorder" with defined diagnostic criteria. At present, misophonia is not listed as a diagnosable condition in the DSM-5-TR, ICD-11, or any similar manual, making it difficult for most people with the condition to receive official clinical diagnoses of misophonia or billable medical services. An international panel of misophonia experts has rigorously established a consensus definition of misophonia as a medical condition, and since its initial publication in 2022, this definition has been widely adopted by clinicians and researchers studying the disorder.

Diplacusis, also known as diplacusis binauralis, binauralis disharmonica or interaural pitch difference (IPD), is a hearing disorder whereby a single auditory stimulus is perceived as different pitches between ears. It is typically experienced as a secondary symptom of sensorineural hearing loss, although not all patients with sensorineural hearing loss experience diplacusis or tinnitus. The onset is usually spontaneous and can occur following an acoustic trauma, for example an explosive noise, or in the presence of an ear infection. Sufferers may experience the effect permanently, or it may resolve on its own. Diplacusis can be particularly disruptive to individuals working within fields requiring acute audition, such as musicians, sound engineers or performing artists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hearing</span> Sensory perception of sound by living organisms

Hearing, or auditory perception, is the ability to perceive sounds through an organ, such as an ear, by detecting vibrations as periodic changes in the pressure of a surrounding medium. The academic field concerned with hearing is auditory science.

Auditory fatigue is defined as a temporary loss of hearing after exposure to sound. This results in a temporary shift of the auditory threshold known as a temporary threshold shift (TTS). The damage can become permanent if sufficient recovery time is not allowed before continued sound exposure. When the hearing loss is rooted from a traumatic occurrence, it may be classified as noise-induced hearing loss, or NIHL.

Acoustic trauma is the sustainment of an injury to the eardrum as a result of a very loud noise. Its scope usually covers loud noises with a short duration, such as an explosion, gunshot or a burst of loud shouting. Quieter sounds that are concentrated in a narrow frequency may also cause damage to specific frequency receptors. The range of severity can vary from pain to hearing loss.

Causes of hearing loss include ageing, genetics, perinatal problems, loud sounds, and diseases. For some kinds of hearing loss the cause may be classified as of unknown cause.

Susan Ellen Shore is an American audiologist who is the Merle Lawrence Collegiate Professor of Otolaryngology at the University of Michigan. She was elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2021.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ototoxic medication</span>

Ototoxicity is defined as the toxic effect on the functioning of the inner ear, which may lead to temporary or permanent hearing loss (cochleotoxic) and balancing problems (vestibulotoxic). Drugs or pharmaceutical agents inducing ototoxicity are regarded as ototoxic medications.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Levine RA, Oron Y (2015). "Tinnitus". The Human Auditory System – Fundamental Organization and Clinical Disorders. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 129. pp. 409–431. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-62630-1.00023-8. ISBN   978-0-444-62630-1. PMID   25726282.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Tinnitus". NIH – National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD). 6 March 2017. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Baguley D, McFerran D, Hall D (November 2013). "Tinnitus". The Lancet. 382 (9904): 1600–1607. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60142-7. PMID   23827090.
  4. 1 2 3 Han BI, Lee HW, Kim TY, Lim JS, Shin KS (March 2009). "Tinnitus: characteristics, causes, mechanisms, and treatments". Journal of Clinical Neurology. 5 (1): 11–19. doi:10.3988/jcn.2009.5.1.11. PMC   2686891 . PMID   19513328. About 75% of new cases are related to emotional stress as the trigger factor rather than to precipitants involving cochlear lesions.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Langguth B, Kreuzer, PM, Kleinjung, T, De Ridder, D (September 2013). "Tinnitus: causes and clinical management". The Lancet Neurology. 12 (9): 920–930. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70160-1. PMID   23948178. S2CID   13402806.
  6. ↑ "Tinnitus – noises in the ears or head". ENT kent. Archived from the original on 28 September 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
  7. ↑ Salazar JW (2019). "Depression in Patients with Tinnitus: A Systematic Review". Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 161 (1): 28–35. doi:10.1177/0194599819835178. PMC   7721477 . PMID   30909841.
  8. ↑ Bhatt JM (2016). "Relationships Between Tinnitus And The Prevalence Of Anxiety And Depression". Laryngoscope. 127 (2): 466–469. doi:10.1002/lary.26107. PMC   5812676 . PMID   27301552.
  9. ↑ "Taming tinnitus".
  10. ↑ "Why Does My Tinnitus Get Worse when I'm Stressed?". 17 May 2021.
  11. ↑ House PR (2008). "Personality of the Tinnitus Patient". Ciba Foundation Symposium 85 – Tinnitus. Novartis Foundation Symposia. Vol. 85. pp. 193–203. doi:10.1002/9780470720677.ch11. ISBN   978-0-470-72067-7. PMID   7035099.
  12. ↑ Esmaili AA, Renton J (1 April 2018). "A review of tinnitus". Australian Journal of General Practice. 47 (4): 205–208. doi: 10.31128/AJGP-12-17-4420 . PMID   29621860.
  13. ↑ Mazurek B, Haupt H, Olze H, Szczepeck A (2022). "Stress and tinnitus—from bedside to bench and back". Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience. 6 (47): 47. doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2012.00047 . PMC   3371598 . PMID   22701404.
  14. 1 2 3 Henry JA, Dennis KC, Schechter MA (October 2005). "General Review of Tinnitus: Prevalence, Mechanisms, Effects, and Management". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 48 (5): 1204–1235. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2005/084). PMID   16411806.
  15. 1 2 3 Rizk HG, Lee JA, Liu YF, Endriukaitis L, Isaac JL, Bullington WM (December 2020). "Drug-Induced Ototoxicity: A Comprehensive Review and Reference Guide". Pharmacotherapy. 40 (12): 1265–1275. doi:10.1002/phar.2478. PMID   33080070. S2CID   224828345.
  16. ↑ Simmons R, Dambra C, Lobarinas E, Stocking C, Salvi R (2008). "Head, Neck, and Eye Movements That Modulate Tinnitus". Seminars in Hearing. 29 (4): 361–370. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1095895. PMC   2633109 . PMID   19183705.
  17. ↑ Baguley D, Andersson g, McFerran D, McKenna L (2013). Tinnitus: A Multidisciplinary Approach (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 16–17. ISBN   978-1-118-48870-6.
  18. ↑ Gopinath B, McMahon CM, Rochtchina E, Karpa MJ, Mitchell P (2010). "Incidence, persistence, and progression of tinnitus symptoms in older adults: the Blue Mountains Hearing Study". Ear and Hearing. 31 (3): 407–412. doi:10.1097/AUD.0b013e3181cdb2a2. PMID   20124901. S2CID   23601127.
  19. ↑ Shargorodsky J, Curhan GC, Farwell WR (2010). "Prevalence and characteristics of tinnitus among US adults". The American Journal of Medicine. 123 (8): 711–718. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2010.02.015. PMID   20670725.
  20. ↑ Andersson G (2002). "Psychological aspects of tinnitus and the application of cognitive-behavioral therapy". Clinical Psychology Review. 22 (7): 977–990. doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(01)00124-6. PMID   12238249.
  21. ↑ Reiss M, Reiss G (1999). "Some psychological aspects of tinnitus". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 88 (3 Pt 1): 790–792. doi:10.2466/pms.1999.88.3.790. PMID   10407886. S2CID   41610361.
  22. ↑ Baguley DM (2002). "Mechanisms of tinnitus". British Medical Bulletin. 63: 195–212. doi: 10.1093/bmb/63.1.195 . PMID   12324394.
  23. ↑ Henry JA, Meikle MB (May 1999). "Pulsed versus Continuous Tones for Evaluating the Loudness of Tinnitus". Journal of the American Academy of Audiology. 10 (5): 261–272. doi:10.1055/s-0042-1748497. PMID   10331618. S2CID   18675226.
  24. 1 2 3 Henry JA, Dennis KC, Schechter MA (2005). "General review of tinnitus: Prevalence, mechanisms, effects, and management". Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 48 (5): 1204–1235. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2005/084). PMID   16411806.
  25. ↑ Davies A, Rafie EA (2000). "Epidemiology of Tinnitus". In Tyler, RS (ed.). Tinnitus Handbook. San Diego: Singular. pp. 1–23. OCLC   42771695.
  26. ↑ Pattyn T, Van Den Eede F, Vanneste S, Cassiers L, Veltman DJ, Van De Heyning P, Sabbe BC (2015). "Tinnitus and anxiety disorders: A review" (PDF). Hearing Research. 333: 255–265. doi:10.1016/j.heares.2015.08.014. hdl: 10067/1273140151162165141 . PMID   26342399. S2CID   205103174.
  27. ↑ Henry JA, Wilson P (2000). "Psychological management of tinnitus". In R.S. Tyler (ed.). Tinnitus Handbook. San Diego: Singular. pp. 263–279. OCLC   42771695.
  28. ↑ Andersson G, Westin V (2008). "Understanding tinnitus distress: Introducing the concepts of moderators and mediators". International Journal of Audiology. 47 (Suppl. 2): S106–111. doi:10.1080/14992020802301670. PMID   19012118. S2CID   19389202.
  29. ↑ Weise C, Hesser H, Andersson G, Nyenhuis N, Zastrutzki S, Kröner-Herwig B, Jäger B (2013). "The role of catastrophizing in recent onset tinnitus: its nature and association with tinnitus distress and medical utilization". International Journal of Audiology. 52 (3): 177–188. doi:10.3109/14992027.2012.752111. PMID   23301660. S2CID   24297897.
  30. ↑ Jastreboff PJ, Hazell J (2004). Tinnitus Retraining Therapy: Implementing the neurophysiological model. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. OCLC   237191959.
  31. 1 2 Robert Aaron Levine (1999). "Somatic (craniocervical) tinnitus and the dorsal cochlear nucleus hypothesis". American Journal of Otolaryngology. 20 (6): 351–362. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.22.2488 . doi:10.1016/S0196-0709(99)90074-1. PMID   10609479.
  32. ↑ Chan Y (2009). "Tinnitus: etiology, classification, characteristics, and treatment". Discovery Medicine. 8 (42): 133–136. PMID   19833060.
  33. ↑ Vijayakumar KA, Cho GW, Maharajan N, Jang CH (31 August 2022). "A Review on Peripheral Tinnitus, Causes, and Treatments from the Perspective of Autophagy". Experimental Neurobiology. 31 (4): 232–242. doi: 10.5607/en22002 . ISSN   1226-2560. PMC   9471415 . PMID   36050223.
  34. ↑ Lie Becker M, et al. (2023). "Transportation Noise and Risk of Tinnitus: A Nationwide Cohort Study from Denmark". Environmental Health Perspectives. 131 (2): 27001. doi:10.1289/EHP11248. PMC   9891135 . PMID   36722980.
  35. ↑ Barbara Rubinstein, et al. (1990). "Prevalence of Signs and Symptoms of Craniomandibular Disorders in Tinnitus Patients". Journal of Craniomandibular Disorders. 4 (3): 186–192. PMID   2098394.
  36. 1 2 Schecklmann M, Vielsmeier V, Steffens T, Landgrebe M, Langguth B, Kleinjung T, Andersson G (18 April 2012). "Relationship between Audiometric Slope and Tinnitus Pitch in Tinnitus Patients: Insights into the Mechanisms of Tinnitus Generation". PLOS ONE. 7 (4): e34878. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...734878S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034878 . PMC   3329543 . PMID   22529949.
  37. ↑ Schaette R, McAlpine D (21 September 2011). "Tinnitus with a Normal Audiogram: Physiological Evidence for Hidden Hearing Loss and Computational Model". The Journal of Neuroscience. 31 (38): 13452–13457. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2156-11.2011. PMC   6623281 . PMID   21940438.
  38. 1 2 3 Yew KS (15 January 2014). "Diagnostic approach to patients with tinnitus". American Family Physician. 89 (2): 106–113. PMID   24444578.
  39. 1 2 3 Theodoroff SM, Konrad-Martin D (August 2020). "Noise: Acoustic Trauma and Tinnitus, the US Military Experience". Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America. 53 (4): 543–553. doi:10.1016/j.otc.2020.03.004. PMC   9015011 . PMID   32334867.
  40. ↑ Don Brown R, Penny JE, Henley CM, Hodges KB, Kupetz SA, Glenn DW, Jobe PC (2008). "Ototoxic Drugs and Noise". Ciba Foundation Symposium 85 – Tinnitus. Novartis Foundation Symposia. Vol. 85. pp. 151–171. doi:10.1002/9780470720677.ch9. ISBN   978-0-470-72067-7. PMID   7035098.
  41. ↑ Stas Bekman. "6) What are some ototoxic drugs?". Stason.org. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 26 October 2012.
  42. 1 2 Riba MB, Ravindranath D (2010). Clinical manual of emergency psychiatry. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc. p. 197. ISBN   978-1-58562-295-5.
  43. 1 2 Delanty N (2001). Seizures: medical causes and management. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. p. 187. ISBN   978-0-89603-827-1.[ permanent dead link ]
  44. ↑ Fornaro M, Martino M (2010). "Tinnitus psychopharmacology: A comprehensive review of its pathomechanisms and management". Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. 6: 209–218. doi: 10.2147/ndt.s10361 . PMC   2898164 . PMID   20628627.
  45. ↑ Crummer RW, Hassan GA (2004). "Diagnostic approach to tinnitus". American Family Physician. 69 (1): 120–106. PMID   14727828.
  46. ↑ Passchier-Vermeer W, Passchier WF (2000). "Noise exposure and public health". Environmental Health Perspectives. 108 (Suppl 1): 123–131. doi:10.1289/ehp.00108s1123. JSTOR   3454637. PMC   1637786 . PMID   10698728.
  47. ↑ Zempleni J, Suttie JW, Gregory JF, Stover PJ, eds. (2014). Handbook of vitamins (5th ed.). Hoboken: CRC Press. p. 477. ISBN   978-1-4665-1557-4. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016.
  48. ↑ Shulgin A, Shulgin A (1997). "#36. 5-MEO-DET". TiHKAL: the continuation. Berkeley, CA: Transform Press. ISBN   978-0-9630096-9-2. OCLC   38503252. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
  49. ↑ "Erowid Experience Vaults: DiPT – More Tripping & Revelations – 26540". Archived from the original on 2 November 2014.
  50. 1 2 "MEM, Tinnitus and Ear Drum Spasms". Tinnitus And You. 18 August 2021. Archived from the original on 20 August 2021. Retrieved 24 May 2022.
  51. ↑ Kerr R, Kang E, Hopkins B, Anne S (December 2017). "Pediatric tinnitus: Incidence of imaging anomalies and the impact of hearing loss". International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology. 103: 147–149. doi:10.1016/j.ijporl.2017.10.027. PMID   29224758.
  52. ↑ Salman R, Chong I, Amans M, Hui F, Desai N, Huisman TA, Tran B (May 2022). "Pediatric tinnitus: The role of neuroimaging". Journal of Neuroimaging. 32 (3): 400–411. doi:10.1111/jon.12986. PMID   35307901. S2CID   247584230.
  53. 1 2 McFerran D, Magdalena S. "Pulsatile tinnitus" (PDF). Action on Hearing Loss. Royal National Institute for Deaf People (RNID). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 22 July 2018.
  54. ↑ Chandler JR (1983). "Diagnosis and cure of venous hum tinnitus". The Laryngoscope. 93 (7): 892–895. doi:10.1288/00005537-198307000-00009. PMID   6865626. S2CID   33725476.
  55. ↑ Pegge SA, Steens SC, Kunst HP, Meijer FJ (2017). "Pulsatile Tinnitus: Differential Diagnosis and Radiological Work-Up". Current Radiology Reports. 5 (1): 5. doi:10.1007/s40134-017-0199-7. ISSN   2167-4825. PMC   5263210 . PMID   28203490.
  56. ↑ Moonis G, Hwang CJ, Ahmed T, Weigele JB, Hurst RW (2005). "Otologic manifestations of petrous carotid aneurysms". American Journal of Neuroradiology. 26 (6): 1324–1327. PMC   8149044 . PMID   15956490.
  57. ↑ Selim M, Caplan LR (June 2004). "Carotid artery dissection". Current Treatment Options in Cardiovascular Medicine. 6 (3): 249–253. doi:10.1007/s11936-996-0020-z. PMID   15096317. S2CID   7503852.
  58. ↑ Ward BK, Carey JP, Minor LB (28 April 2017). "Superior Canal Dehiscence Syndrome: Lessons from the First 20 Years". Frontiers in Neurology. 8: 177. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2017.00177 . ISSN   1664-2295. PMC   5408023 . PMID   28503164.
  59. ↑ Sismanis A, Butts FM, Hughes GB (January 1990). "Objective Tinnitus in Benign Intracranial Hypertension: An Update". The Laryngoscope. 100 (1): 33–36. doi:10.1288/00005537-199001000-00008. PMID   2293699. S2CID   20886638.
  60. ↑ Diamond BJ, Mosley JE (2011). "Arteriovenous Malformation (AVM)". In Kreutzer JS, DeLuca J, Caplan B (eds.). Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology. Springer. pp. 249–252. doi: 10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3 . ISBN   978-0-387-79947-6.
  61. ↑ Nicolas-Puel C, Faulconbridge RL, Guitton M, Puel JL, Mondain M, Uziel A (2002). "Characteristics of tinnitus and etiology of associated hearing loss: a study of 123 patients". The International Tinnitus Journal. 8 (1): 37–44. PMID   14763234.
  62. ↑ Møller AR (2016). "Sensorineural Tinnitus: Its Pathology and Probable Therapies". International Journal of Otolaryngology. 2016: 1–13. doi: 10.1155/2016/2830157 . PMC   4761664 . PMID   26977153.
  63. ↑ Sedley W, Friston KJ, Gander PE, Kumar S, Griffiths TD (2016). "An Integrative Tinnitus Model Based on Sensory Precision". Trends in Neurosciences. 39 (12): 799–812. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2016.10.004. PMC   5152595 . PMID   27871729.
  64. ↑ Shore SE, Roberts LE, Langguth B (2016). "Maladaptive plasticity in tinnitus – triggers, mechanisms and treatment". Nature Reviews Neurology. 12 (3): 150–160. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2016.12. PMC   4895692 . PMID   26868680.
  65. ↑ Park JM, Kim WJ, Han JS, Park SY, Park SN (2 July 2020). "Management of palatal myoclonic tinnitus based on clinical characteristics: a large case series study". Acta Oto-Laryngologica. 140 (7): 553–557. doi:10.1080/00016489.2020.1749724. PMID   32406274. S2CID   218635840.
  66. ↑ Crummer RW, et al. (2004). "Diagnostic Approach to Tinnitus". American Family Physician. 69 (1): 120–126. PMID   14727828.
  67. ↑ Davis A (1989). "The prevalence of hearing impairment and reported hearing disability among adults in Great Britain". International Journal of Epidemiology. 18 (4): 911–917. doi:10.1093/ije/18.4.911. PMID   2621028.
  68. ↑ Henry JA (2016). ""Measurement" of Tinnitus". Otology & Neurotology. 37 (8): e276–e285. doi:10.1097/MAO.0000000000001070. ISSN   1531-7129.
  69. ↑ Henry JA, Meikle MB (March 2000). "Psychoacoustic measures of tinnitus". Journal of the American Academy of Audiology. 11 (3): 138–155. doi:10.1055/s-0042-1748040. PMID   10755810. S2CID   34933069.
  70. ↑ Vielsmeier V, Lehner A, Strutz J, Steffens T, Kreuzer PM, Schecklmann M, Landgrebe M, Langguth B, Kleinjung T (2015). "The Relevance of the High Frequency Audiometry in Tinnitus Patients with Normal Hearing in Conventional Pure-Tone Audiometry". BioMed Research International. 2015: 1–5. doi: 10.1155/2015/302515 . PMC   4637018 . PMID   26583098.
  71. ↑ Basile CÉ, Fournier P, Hutchins S, Hébert S (2013). "Psychoacoustic assessment to improve tinnitus diagnosis". PLOS ONE. 8 (12): e82995. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...882995B. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082995 . PMC   3861445 . PMID   24349414.
  72. ↑ Roberts LE (2007). "Residual inhibition". Tinnitus: Pathophysiology and Treatment. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 166. pp. 487–495. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(07)66047-6. ISBN   978-0-444-53167-4. PMID   17956813.
  73. ↑ Roberts LE, Moffat G, Baumann M, Ward LM, Bosnyak DJ (2008). "Residual inhibition functions overlap tinnitus spectra and the region of auditory threshold shift". Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology. 9 (4): 417–435. doi:10.1007/s10162-008-0136-9. PMC   2580805 . PMID   18712566.
  74. ↑ Knipper M, Van Dijk P, Nunes I, Rüttiger L, Zimmermann U (2013). "Advances in the neurobiology of hearing disorders: recent developments regarding the basis of tinnitus and hyperacusis". Progress in Neurobiology. 111: 17–33. doi: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.08.002 . PMID   24012803.
  75. ↑ Tyler RS, Pienkowski M, Roncancio ER, Jun HJ, Brozoski T, Dauman N, Coelho CB, Andersson G, Keiner AJ, Cacace AT, Martin N, Moore BC (December 2014). "A Review of Hyperacusis and Future Directions: Part I. Definitions and Manifestations". American Journal of Audiology. 23 (4): 402–419. doi:10.1044/2014_AJA-14-0010. PMID   25104073.
  76. ↑ Sherlock LP, Formby C (February 2005). "Estimates of Loudness, Loudness Discomfort, and the Auditory Dynamic Range: Normative Estimates, Comparison of Procedures, and Test-Retest Reliability". Journal of the American Academy of Audiology. 16 (2): 85–100. doi:10.3766/jaaa.16.2.4. PMID   15807048.
  77. ↑ Pienkowski M, Tyler RS, Roncancio ER, Jun HJ, Brozoski T, Dauman N, Coelho CB, Andersson G, Keiner AJ, Cacace AT, Martin N, Moore BC (December 2014). "A Review of Hyperacusis and Future Directions: Part II. Measurement, Mechanisms, and Treatment". American Journal of Audiology. 23 (4): 420–436. doi:10.1044/2014_AJA-13-0037. PMID   25478787.
  78. ↑ McCombe A, Baguley D, Coles R, McKenna L, McKinney C, Windle-Taylor P (October 2001). "Guidelines for the grading of tinnitus severity: the results of a working group commissioned by the British Association of Otolaryngologists, Head and Neck Surgeons, 1999". Clinical Otolaryngology and Allied Sciences. 26 (5): 388–393. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2273.2001.00490.x. PMID   11678946.
  79. ↑ Langguth B, Goodey R, Azevedo A, Bjorne A, Cacace A, Crocetti A, Del Bo L, De Ridder D, Diges I, Elbert T, Flor H, Herraiz C, Ganz Sanchez T, Eichhammer P, Figueiredo R, Hajak G, Kleinjung T, Landgrebe M, Londero A, Lainez M, Mazzoli M, Meikle M, Melcher J, Rauschecker J, Sand P, Struve M, Van De Heyning P, Van Dijk P, Vergara R (2007). "Consensus for tinnitus patient assessment and treatment outcome measurement: Tinnitus Research Initiative meeting, Regensburg, July 2006". Tinnitus: Pathophysiology and Treatment. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 166. pp. 525–536. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(07)66050-6. ISBN   978-0-444-53167-4. PMC   4283806 . PMID   17956816.
  80. ↑ Meikle M, Stewart B, Griest S, Martin W, Henry J, Abrams H, McArdle R, Newman C, Sandridge S (2007). "Assessment of tinnitus: Measurement of treatment outcomes". Tinnitus: Pathophysiology and Treatment. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 166. pp. 511–521. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(07)66049-X. ISBN   978-0-444-53167-4. PMID   17956815.
  81. ↑ Meikle MB, Henry JA, Griest SE, Stewart BJ, Abrams HB, McArdle R, Myers PJ, Newman CW, Sandridge S, Turk DC, Folmer RL, Frederick EJ, House JW, Jacobson GP, Kinney SE, Martin WH, Nagler SM, Reich GE, Searchfield G, Sweetow R, Vernon JA (March 2012). "The Tinnitus Functional Index: Development of a New Clinical Measure for Chronic, Intrusive Tinnitus". Ear & Hearing. 33 (2): 153–176. doi:10.1097/AUD.0b013e31822f67c0. PMID   22156949. S2CID   587811.
  82. ↑ Henry JL, Wilson PH (2000). The Psychological Management of Chronic Tinnitus: A Cognitive Behavioural Approach. Allyn and Bacon.
  83. ↑ Landgrebe M, Azevedo A, Baguley D, Bauer C, Cacace A, Coelho C, et al. (2012). "Methodological aspects of clinical trials in tinnitus: A proposal for international standard". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 73 (2): 112–121. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2012.05.002. PMC   3897200 . PMID   22789414.
  84. 1 2 Martinez-Devesa P, Perera R, Theodoulou M, Waddell A (8 September 2010). "Cognitive behavioural therapy for tinnitus" (PDF). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (9): CD005233. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005233.pub3. PMID   20824844. Archived from the original on 11 December 2024.
  85. ↑ Pegge S, Steens S, Kunst H, Meijer F (2017). "Pulsatile Tinnitus: Differential Diagnosis and Radiological Work-Up". Current Radiology Reports. 5 (1): 5. doi:10.1007/s40134-017-0199-7. PMC   5263210 . PMID   28203490.
  86. ↑ Hofmann E, Behr R, Neumann-Haefelin T, Schwager K (2013). "Pulsatile tinnitus: imaging and differential diagnosis". Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. 110 (26): 451–458. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2013.0451. PMC   3719451 . PMID   23885280.
  87. ↑ Sismanis A (October 2011). "Pulsatile tinnitus: contemporary assessment and management". Current Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery. 19 (5): 348–357. doi:10.1097/MOO.0b013e3283493fd8. PMID   22552697. S2CID   22964919.
  88. ↑ Elder JA, Chou, CK (2003). "Auditory response to pulsed radiofrequency energy". Bioelectromagnetics. 6: S162–173. doi: 10.1002/bem.10163 . PMID   14628312. S2CID   9813447.
  89. ↑ Lin JC, Wang Z (2007). "Hearing of microwave pulses by humans and animals: effects, mechanism, and thresholds". Health Physics. 92 (6): 621–628. doi:10.1097/01.HP.0000250644.84530.e2. PMID   17495664. S2CID   37236570.
  90. 1 2 3 Tunkel DE, Bauer CA, Sun GH, et al. (2014). "Clinical practice guideline: tinnitus". Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery. 151 (2 Suppl): S1–40. doi:10.1177/0194599814545325. PMID   25273878. S2CID   206468767.
  91. ↑ "NIOSH Program Portfolio : Hearing Loss Prevention : Program Description". www.cdc.gov – CDC. 5 February 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  92. ↑ "Bike news". www.carolenash.com. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
  93. ↑ Burns-O'Connell G, Stockdale D, Cassidy O, Knowles V, Hoare DJ (27 August 2021). "Surrounded by Sound: The Impact of Tinnitus on Musicians". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (17): 9036. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18179036 . PMC   8431046 . PMID   34501628.
  94. ↑ Boles B (9 August 2016). "DJs Shouldn't Have to Live With Constant Ringing in Their Ears". VICE. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
  95. ↑ Couth S, Mazlan N, Moore DR, Munro KJ, Dawes P (January 2019). "Hearing Difficulties and Tinnitus in Construction, Agricultural, Music, and Finance Industries: Contributions of Demographic, Health, and Lifestyle Factors". Trends in Hearing. 23. doi:10.1177/2331216519885571. PMC   6868580 . PMID   31747526.
  96. ↑ "Construction Statistics – Occupational Hearing Loss Surveillance | NIOSH | CDC". 12 November 2021.
  97. ↑ Cianfrone G, Pentangelo D, Cianfrone F, Mazzei F, Turchetta R, Orlando MP, Altissimi G (June 2011). "Pharmacological drugs inducing ototoxicity, vestibular symptoms and tinnitus: a reasoned and updated guide". European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences. 15 (6): 601–636. PMID   21796866.
  98. ↑ Palomar García V, Abdulghani Martínez, F, Bodet Agustí, E, Andreu Mencía, L, Palomar Asenjo, V (July 2001). "Drug-induced otoxicity: current status". Acta Oto-Laryngologica. 121 (5): 569–572. doi:10.1080/00016480121545. PMID   11583387. S2CID   218879738.
  99. ↑ Seligmann H, Podoshin L, Ben-David J, Fradis M, Goldsher M (1996). "Drug-induced tinnitus and other hearing disorders". Drug Safety. 14 (3): 198–212. doi:10.2165/00002018-199614030-00006. PMID   8934581. S2CID   23522352.
  100. ↑ "Drug Therapies". American Tinnitus Association . 20 March 2015. Retrieved 3 March 2022. There are presently no FDA-approved drugs specifically for tinnitus, and no medications that have been shown to reverse the neural hyperactivity at the root of tinnitus. Drugs cannot cure tinnitus, but they may provide relief from some severe tinnitus symptoms.
  101. ↑ Kleinjung T, Langguth B (August 2020). "Avenue for Future Tinnitus Treatments". Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America. 53 (4): 667–683. doi: 10.1016/j.otc.2020.03.013 . PMID   32381341.
  102. 1 2 Hoare D, Kowalkowski V, Knag S, Hall D (2011). "Systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials examining tinnitus management". The Laryngoscope. 121 (7): 1555–1564. doi:10.1002/lary.21825. PMC   3477633 . PMID   21671234.
  103. ↑ Hesser H, Weise C, Zetterquist Westin V, Andersson G (2011). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of cognitive–behavioral therapy for tinnitus distress". Clinical Psychology Review. 31 (4): 545–553. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.12.006. PMID   21237544.
  104. ↑ Ost LG (October 2014). "The efficacy of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 61: 105–121. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2014.07.018. PMID   25193001.
  105. ↑ Henry J, Zaugg T, Myers P, Kendall C (2012). "Chapter 9 – Level 5 Individualized Support". Progressive Tinnitus Management: Clinical Handbook for Audiologists. US Department of Veterans Affairs, National Center for Rehabilitative Auditory Research. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
  106. ↑ Hoare DJ, Searchfield GD, El Refaie A, Henry JA (2014). "Sound therapy for tinnitus management: practicable options". Journal of the American Academy of Audiology. 25 (1): 62–75. doi:10.3766/jaaa.25.1.5. PMID   24622861.
  107. ↑ Sereda M, Xia J, El Refaie A, Hall DA, Hoare DJ (27 December 2018). "Sound therapy (using amplification devices and/or sound generators) for tinnitus". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018 (12): CD013094. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD013094.pub2. PMC   6517157 . PMID   30589445.
  108. ↑ Shore SE, Roberts LE, Langguth B (March 2016). "Maladaptive plasticity in tinnitus – triggers, mechanisms and treatment". Nature Reviews Neurology. 12 (3): 150–160. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2016.12. PMC   4895692 . PMID   26868680.
  109. 1 2 Hesse G (15 December 2016). "Evidence and evidence gaps in tinnitus therapy". GMS Current Topics in Otorhinolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery; 15:Doc04. 15: Doc04. doi:10.3205/cto000131. PMC   5169077 . PMID   28025604.
  110. ↑ Phillips JS, McFerran D (2010). "Tinnitus Retraining Therapy (TRT) for tinnitus". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2010 (3): CD007330. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007330.pub2. PMC   7209976 . PMID   20238353.
  111. ↑ Casale M, Costantino A, Rinaldi V, Forte A, Grimaldi M, Sabatino L, Oliveto G, Aloise F, Pontari D, Salvinelli F (December 2018). "Mobile applications in otolaryngology for patients: An update: Otolaryngology Apps for Patients". Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology. 3 (6): 434–438. doi:10.1002/lio2.201. PMC   6302723 . PMID   30599026.
  112. ↑ Mosa AS, Yoo I, Sheets L (December 2012). "A Systematic Review of Healthcare Applications for Smartphones". BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making. 12 (1): 67. doi: 10.1186/1472-6947-12-67 . PMC   3534499 . PMID   22781312.
  113. ↑ Kalle S, Schlee W, Pryss RC, Probst T, Reichert M, Langguth B, Spiliopoulou M (20 August 2018). "Review of Smart Services for Tinnitus Self-Help, Diagnostics and Treatments". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 12: 541. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00541 . PMC   6109754 . PMID   30177869.
  114. ↑ Hobson J, Chisholm E, El Refaie A (14 November 2012). "Sound therapy (masking) in the management of tinnitus in adults". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006371.pub3 . PMC   7390392 . PMID   23152235.
  115. ↑ The Effect of Physical Therapy on Somatosensory Tinnitus
  116. 1 2 3 Bauer CA (March 2018). "Tinnitus". New England Journal of Medicine. 378 (13): 1224–1231. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1506631. PMID   29601255.
  117. ↑ Baldo P, Doree, C, Molin, P, McFerran, D, Cecco, S (12 September 2012). "Antidepressants for patients with tinnitus". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2012 (9): CD003853. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003853.pub3. PMC   7156891 . PMID   22972065.
  118. ↑ Savage J, Cook, S, Waddell, A (12 November 2009). "Tinnitus". BMJ Clinical Evidence. 2009. PMC   2907768 . PMID   21726476.
  119. ↑ Savage J, Waddell A (October 2014). "Tinnitus". BMJ Clinical Evidence. 2014: 0506. PMC   4202663 . PMID   25328113.
  120. ↑ Kim SH, Kim D, Lee JM, Lee SK, Kang HJ, Yeo SG (June 2021). "Review of Pharmacotherapy for Tinnitus". Healthcare. 9 (6): 779. doi: 10.3390/healthcare9060779 . PMC   8235102 . PMID   34205776.
  121. ↑ Miroddi M, Bruno R, Galletti F, Calapai F, Navarra M, Gangemi S, Calapai G (March 2015). "Clinical pharmacology of melatonin in the treatment of tinnitus: a review". European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 71 (3): 263–270. doi:10.1007/s00228-015-1805-3. PMID   25597877. S2CID   16466238.
  122. ↑ Hoekstra CE, Rynja SP, van Zanten GA, Rovers MM (6 July 2011). "Anticonvulsants for tinnitus". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2011 (7): CD007960. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007960.pub2. PMC   6599822 . PMID   21735419.
  123. ↑ Pichora-Fuller MK, Santaguida P, Hammill A, Oremus M, Westerberg B, Ali U, Patterson C, Raina P (2013). "Evaluation and Treatment of Tinnitus: Comparative Effectiveness". Comparative Effectiveness Reviews. AHRQ Comparative Effectiveness Reviews (122). PMID   24049842.
  124. ↑ Lavigne P, Lavigne F, Saliba I (23 June 2015). "Intratympanic corticosteroids injections: a systematic review of literature". European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. 273 (9): 2271–2278. doi:10.1007/s00405-015-3689-3. PMID   26100030. S2CID   36037973.
  125. ↑ Hall DA, Wegner I, Smit AL, McFerran D, Stegeman I (2018). Cochrane ENT Group (ed.). "Betahistine for tinnitus". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 12 (8): CD013093. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD013093. PMC   6513648 . PMID   30908589.
  126. ↑ Slengerik-Hansen J, Ovesen T (2016). "Botulinum Toxin Treatment of Objective Tinnitus Because of Essential Palatal Tremor: A Systematic Review". Otology & Neurotology. 37 (7): 820–828. doi:10.1097/MAO.0000000000001090. PMID   27273401. S2CID   23675169.
  127. ↑ Sweetman SC, ed. (2009). Martindale (36th ed.). Pharmaceutical Press. p. 2277. ISBN   978-0-85369-840-1.
  128. ↑ Langguth B, Salvi R, Elgoyhen AB (December 2009). "Emerging pharmacotherapy of tinnitus". Expert Opinion on Emerging Drugs. 14 (4): 687–702. doi:10.1517/14728210903206975. PMC   2832848 . PMID   19712015.
  129. ↑ Kwon D (7 October 2020). "New Tinnitus Treatment Alleviated Annoying Ringing in the Ears". Scientific American. 2 (6). Springer Nature America, Inc.: None. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican122020-2VzL6BO1nViUY4ozIqWxY8.
  130. ↑ George J (8 March 2023). "First Bimodal Neuromodulation Device for Tinnitus Gets FDA Nod". MedPage Today. Retrieved 23 July 2024.
  131. ↑ Everts Q (14 March 2023). "FDA Grants De Novo Approval to Non-Invasive Tinnitus Treatment Device". Drug Topics. Retrieved 23 July 2024.
  132. 1 2 Philpott J (18 June 2024). "Neuromod inks contract to treat US veterans with tinnitus device". Medical Device Network. Retrieved 23 July 2024.
  133. ↑ Meng Z, Liu, S, Zheng, Y, Phillips, JS (5 October 2011). "Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for tinnitus". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (10): CD007946. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007946.pub2. PMID   21975776.
  134. ↑ Hilton MP, Zimmermann, EF, Hunt, WT (28 March 2013). "Ginkgo biloba for tinnitus". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 3 (3): CD003852. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003852.pub3 . PMID   23543524. S2CID   205171459.
  135. ↑ Person OC, Puga ME, da Silva EM, Torloni MR (23 November 2016). "Zinc supplements for tinnitus". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016 (11): CD009832. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009832.pub2. PMC   6464312 . PMID   27879981.
  136. ↑ Sanchez TG, Rocha CB (2011). "Diagnosis and management of somatosensory tinnitus: review article". Clinics. 66 (6): 1089–1094. doi:10.1590/S1807-59322011000600028. PMC   3129953 . PMID   21808880.
  137. ↑ Heller AJ (2003). "Classification and epidemiology of tinnitus". Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America. 36 (2): 239–248. doi:10.1016/S0030-6665(02)00160-3. PMID   12856294.
  138. ↑ "Transkribering av #89: Varför får man tinnitus?" (in Swedish). Karolinska Institutet. Archived from the original on 1 December 2022.
  139. ↑ "Almost 15% of Europe's adults have a ringing in their ears, say researchers". European Commission: CORDIS. Archived from the original on 1 December 2022.
  140. ↑ Celik N, Bajin MD, Aksoy S (2009). "Tinnitus incidence and characteristics in children with hearing loss". Journal of International Advanced Otology. 5 (3): 363–369. hdl:11655/17046. OCLC   695291085.
  141. ↑ Lee DY, Kim YH (June 2018). "Risk factors of pediatric tinnitus: Systematic review and meta-analysis". The Laryngoscope. 128 (6): 1462–1468. doi:10.1002/lary.26924. PMID   29094364. S2CID   24633085.
  142. ↑ Mills RP, Albert D, Brain C (1986). "Tinnitus in childhood". Clinical Otolaryngology and Allied Sciences. 11 (6): 431–434. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2273.1986.tb02033.x. PMID   3815868.
  143. ↑ Ballantyne JC (2009). Graham JM, Baguley D (eds.). Ballantyne's Deafness (7th ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. OCLC   275152841.
  144. ↑ Shetye A, Kennedy V (1 August 2010). "Tinnitus in children: an uncommon symptom?". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 95 (8): 645–648. doi:10.1136/adc.2009.168252. PMID   20371585. S2CID   34443303.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.