Engineering controls

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Occupational hazards
Hierarchy of hazard controls
Occupational hygiene
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Engineering controls are strategies designed to protect workers from hazardous conditions by placing a barrier between the worker and the hazard or by removing a hazardous substance through air ventilation. [1] [2] Engineering controls involve a physical change to the workplace itself, rather than relying on workers' behavior or requiring workers to wear protective clothing. [3]

Contents

Engineering controls is the third of five members of the hierarchy of hazard controls, which orders control strategies by their feasibility and effectiveness. Engineering controls are preferred over administrative controls and personal protective equipment (PPE) because they are designed to remove the hazard at the source, before it comes in contact with the worker. Well-designed engineering controls can be highly effective in protecting workers and will typically be independent of worker interactions to provide this high level of protection. The initial cost of engineering controls can be higher than the cost of administrative controls or PPE, but over the longer term, operating costs are frequently lower, and in some instances, can provide a cost savings in other areas of the process. [4]

Elimination and substitution are usually considered to be separate levels of hazard controls, but in some schemes they are categorized as types of engineering control. [5] [6]

The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health researches engineering control technologies, and provides information on their details and effectiveness in the NIOSH Engineering Controls Database. [4] [7]

Background

Engineering controls are the third most effective member of the hierarchy of hazard controls. They are preferred over administrative controls and personal protective equipment, but are less preferred than elimination or substitution of the hazards. NIOSH's "Hierarchy of Controls infographic" as SVG.svg
Engineering controls are the third most effective member of the hierarchy of hazard controls. They are preferred over administrative controls and personal protective equipment, but are less preferred than elimination or substitution of the hazards.

Controlling exposures to occupational hazards is considered the fundamental method of protecting workers. Traditionally, a hierarchy of controls has been used as a means of determining how to implement feasible and effective controls, which typically include elimination, substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls, and personal protective equipment. Methods earlier in the list are considered generally more effective in reducing the risk associated with a hazard, with process changes and engineering controls recommended as the primary means for reducing exposures, and personal protective equipment being the approach of last resort. Following the hierarchy is intended to lead to the implementation of inherently safer systems, ones where the risk of illness or injury has been substantially reduced. [8]

Engineering controls are physical changes to the workplace that isolate workers from hazards by containing them in an enclosure, or removing contaminated air from the workplace through ventilation and filtering. Well-designed engineering controls are typically passive, in the sense of being independent of worker interactions, which reduces the potential for worker behavior to impact exposure levels. They also ideally do not interfere with productivity and ease of processing for the worker, because otherwise the operator may be motivated to circumvent the controls. The initial cost of engineering controls can be higher than administrative controls or personal protective equipment, but the long-term operating costs are frequently lower, and can sometimes provide cost savings in other areas of the process. [9] : 10–11 

Chemical and biological hazards

Various chemical hazards and biological hazards are known to cause disease. Engineering control approaches are often oriented towards reducing inhalation exposure through ventilation and isolation of the toxic material. However, isolation can also be useful for preventing skin and eye contact as well, reducing reliance on personal protective equipment which should be the control of last resort. [10]

Ventilation

A fume hood is an example of an engineering control that uses local exhaust ventilation combined with an enclosure to isolate a worker from airborne gasses or particulates. Fume hood conventional.png
A fume hood is an example of an engineering control that uses local exhaust ventilation combined with an enclosure to isolate a worker from airborne gasses or particulates.

Ventilation systems are distinguished as being either local or general. Local exhaust ventilation operates at or near the source of contamination, often in conjunction with an enclosure, while general exhaust ventilation operates on an entire room through a building's HVAC system. [9] : 11–12 

Local exhaust ventilation

Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) is the application of an exhaust system at or near the source of contamination. If properly designed, it will be much more efficient at removing contaminants than dilution ventilation, requiring lower exhaust volumes, less make-up air, and, in many cases, lower costs. By applying exhaust at the source, contaminants are removed before they get into the general work environment. [9] : 12  Examples of local exhaust systems include fume hoods, vented balance enclosures, and biosafety cabinets. Exhaust hoods lacking an enclosure are less preferable, and laminar flow hoods are not recommended because they direct air outwards towards the worker. [11] : 18–28 

Vented balance enclosures used in the pharmaceutical industry can be used for nanomaterials, with the advantages of smaller size and lower turbulence. Powder-handling enclosure 2.png
Vented balance enclosures used in the pharmaceutical industry can be used for nanomaterials, with the advantages of smaller size and lower turbulence.

Fume hoods are recommended to have an average inward velocity of 80–100 feet per minute (fpm) at the face of the hood. For higher toxicity materials, a higher face velocity of 100–120 fpm is recommended in order to provide better protection. However, face velocities exceeding 150 fpm are not believed to improve performance, and could increase hood leakage. [12] It is recommended that air exiting a fume hood should be passed through a HEPA filter and exhausted outside the work environment, with used filters being handled as hazardous waste. Turbulence can cause materials to exit the front of the hood, and can be avoided by keeping the sash in the proper position, keeping the interior of the hood uncluttered with equipment, and not making fast movements while working. [11] : 19–24 

Low-turbulence balance enclosures were initially developed for the weighing of pharmaceutical powders and are also used for nanomaterials; these provide adequate containment at lower face velocities, typically operating at 65–85 fpm. [12] They are useful for weighing operations, which disturb the material and increase its aerosolization. [11] : 27–28 

Biosafety cabinets, although designed to contain bioaerosols, can also be used to contain nanomaterials. Superciste prostory.jpg
Biosafety cabinets, although designed to contain bioaerosols, can also be used to contain nanomaterials.

Biosafety cabinets are designed to contain bioaerosols. However, common biosafety cabinets are more prone to turbulence. As with fume hoods, they are recommended to be exhausted outside the facility. [11] : 25–27 

Dedicated large-scale ventilated enclosures for large pieces of equipment can also be used. [13] : 9–11 

General exhaust ventilation

General exhaust ventilation (GEV), also called dilution ventilation, is different from local exhaust ventilation because instead of capturing emissions at their source and removing them from the air, general exhaust ventilation allows the contaminant to be emitted into the workplace air and then dilutes the concentration of the contaminant to an acceptable level. GEV is inefficient and costly as compared to local exhaust ventilation, and given the lack of established exposure limits for most nanomaterials, they are not recommended to be relied upon for controlling exposure. [9] : 11–12 

However, GEV can provide negative room pressure to prevent contaminants from exiting the room. The use of supply and exhaust air throughout the facility can provide pressurization schemes that reduce the number of workers exposed to potentially hazardous materials, for example keeping production areas at a negative pressure with respect to nearby areas. [9] : 11–12  For general exhaust ventilation in laboratories, a nonrecirculating system is used with 4–12 air changes per hour when used in tandem with local exhaust ventilation, and sources of contamination are placed close to the air exhaust and downwind of workers, and away from windows or doors that may cause air drafts. [11] : 13 

Control verification

Several control verification techniques can be used to assess room airflow patterns and verify the proper operation of LEV systems. It is considered important to confirm that an LEV system is operating as designed by regularly measuring exhaust airflows. A standard measurement, hood static pressure, provides information on airflow changes that affect hood performance. For hoods designed to prevent exposure to hazardous airborne contaminants, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists recommends the installation of a fixed hood static pressure gauge. [14]

Additionally, Pitot tubes, hot-wire anemometers, smoke generators, and dry ice tests can be used to qualitatively measure hood slot/face and duct air velocity, while tracer-gas leak testing is a quantitative method. [9] : 50–52, 59  Standardized testing and certification procedures such as ANSI Z9.5 and ASHRAE 110 can be used, as can qualitative indicators of proper installation and functionality such as inspection of gaskets and hoses. [9] : 59–60  [13] : 14–15 

Containment

Gloveboxes are completely enclosed, but are more difficult to use than fume hoods, and may leak if used under positive pressure. Glovebox.jpg
Gloveboxes are completely enclosed, but are more difficult to use than fume hoods, and may leak if used under positive pressure.

Containment refers to the physical isolation of a process or a piece of equipment to prevent the release of the hazardous material into the workplace. [11] : 13  It can be used in conjunction with ventilation measures to provide an enhanced level of protection for nanomaterial workers. Examples include placing equipment that may release toxic materials in a separate room. [13] : 9–11  [15] Standard dust control methods such as enclosures for conveyor systems or using a sealed system for bag filling are effective at reducing respirable dust concentrations. [9] : 16–17 

Non-ventilation engineering controls can also include devices developed for the pharmaceutical industry, including isolation containment systems. One of the most common flexible isolation systems is glovebox containment, which can be used as an enclosure around small-scale powder processes, such as mixing and drying. Rigid glovebox isolation units also provide a method for isolating the worker from the process and are often used for medium-scale operations involving transfer of powders. Glovebags are similar to rigid gloveboxes, but they are flexible and disposable. They are used for small operations for containment or protection from contamination. [16] Gloveboxes are sealed systems that provide a high degree of operator protection, but are more difficult to use due to limited mobility and size of operation. Transferring materials into and out of the enclosure also is an exposure risk. In addition, some gloveboxes are configured to use positive pressure, which can increase the risk of leaks. [11] : 24–28 

Another non-ventilation control used in this industry is the continuous liner system, which allows the filling of product containers while enclosing the material in a polypropylene bag. This system is often used for off-loading materials when the powders are to be packed into drums. [16]

Other

A sticky mat in a nanomaterials production facility. Ideally, other engineering controls should lessen the amount of dust collecting on the floor and being tracked onto the sticky mat, unlike this example. Sticky mat with nanomaterials.png
A sticky mat in a nanomaterials production facility. Ideally, other engineering controls should lessen the amount of dust collecting on the floor and being tracked onto the sticky mat, unlike this example.

Other non-ventilation engineering controls in general cover a range of control measures, such as guards and barricades, material treatment, or additives. One example is placing walk-off sticky mats at room exits. [13] : 9–11  [15] Antistatic devices can be used when handling particulates including nanomaterials to reduce their electrostatic charge, making them less likely to disperse or adhere to clothing. [11] : 28  Water spray application is also an effective method for reducing respirable dust concentrations. [9] : 16–17 

Physical hazards

Ergonomic hazards

Ergonomics is the study of how employees relate to their work environments. Ergonomists and industrial hygienists aim to prevent musculoskeletal disorders and soft tissue injuries by fitting the workers to their work space. Tools, lighting, tasks, controls, displays, and equipment as well as the employee's capabilities and limitations must all be considered to create an ergonomically appropriate workplace. [17]

Falls

Fall protection is the use of controls designed to protect personnel from falling or in the event they do fall, to stop them without causing severe injury. Typically, fall protection is implemented when working at height, but may be relevant when working near any edge, such as near a pit or hole, or performing work on a steep surface. According to the US Department of Labor, falls account for 8% of all work-related trauma injuries leading to death. [18]

Fall guarding is the use of guard rails or other barricades to prevent a person from falling. These barricades are placed near an edge where a fall hazard can occur, or to surround a weak surface (such as a skylight on a roof) that may break when stepped on.

Fall arrest is the form of fall protection which involves the safe stopping of a person already falling. Fall arrest is of two major types: general fall arrest, such as nets; and personal fall arrest, such as lifelines.

Noise

Occupational hearing loss is one of the most common work-related illnesses in the United States. Each year, about 22 million U.S. workers are exposed to hazardous noise levels at work. [19] Hearing loss costs businesses $242 million annually for workers compensation claims. [20] There are both regulatory and recommended exposure limits for noise exposure in the U.S. The NIOSH Recommended Exposure Limit (REL) for occupational noise exposure is 85 decibels, A-weighted, as an 8-hour time-weighted average (85 dBA as an 8-hr TWA) using a 3-dB exchange rate. [21] The OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 90 dBA as an 8 hr-TWA, using a 5 dBA exchange rate. [22] The exchange rate means that when the noise level is increased by either 3 dBA (according to the NIOSH REL) or 5 dBA (according to the OSHA PEL), the amount of time a person can be exposed to a certain noise level to receive the same dose is cut in half. Exposures at or above these levels are considered hazardous.

The Hierarchy of Controls approach can also be applied to reducing exposures to noise sources. The use of engineering control approaches to reduce noise at the source is preferred and can be accomplished by several means, including: using quieter tools, using vibration isolation or dampers on machinery, and disrupting the noise path by using barriers or sound insulation around the equipment [23] [24]

Other

Psychosocial hazards

Engineering controls for psychosocial hazards include workplace design to affect the amount, type, and level of personal control of work, as well as access controls and alarms. The risk of workplace violence can be reduced through physical design of the workplace or by cameras. [25]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Personal protective equipment</span> Equipment designed to help protect an individual from hazards

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemical, biohazards, and airborne particulate matter. Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational activities. Protective clothing is applied to traditional categories of clothing, and protective gear applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks, and others. PPE suits can be similar in appearance to a cleanroom suit.

Occupational noise is the amount of acoustic energy received by an employee's auditory system when they are working in the industry. Occupational noise, or industrial noise, is often a term used in occupational safety and health, as sustained exposure can cause permanent hearing damage. Occupational noise is considered an occupational hazard traditionally linked to loud industries such as ship-building, mining, railroad work, welding, and construction, but can be present in any workplace where hazardous noise is present.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational hygiene</span> Management of workplace health hazards

Occupational hygiene is the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, control, and confirmation (ARECC) of protection from risks associated with exposures to hazards in, or arising from, the workplace that may result in injury, illness, impairment, or affect the well-being of workers and members of the community. These hazards or stressors are typically divided into the categories biological, chemical, physical, ergonomic and psychosocial. The risk of a health effect from a given stressor is a function of the hazard multiplied by the exposure to the individual or group. For chemicals, the hazard can be understood by the dose response profile most often based on toxicological studies or models. Occupational hygienists work closely with toxicologists for understanding chemical hazards, physicists for physical hazards, and physicians and microbiologists for biological hazards. Environmental and occupational hygienists are considered experts in exposure science and exposure risk management. Depending on an individual's type of job, a hygienist will apply their exposure science expertise for the protection of workers, consumers and/or communities.

The permissible exposure limit is a legal limit in the United States for exposure of an employee to a chemical substance or physical agent such as high level noise. Permissible exposure limits were established by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Most of OSHA's PELs were issued shortly after adoption of the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act in 1970.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemical hazard</span> Non-biological hazards of hazardous materials

Chemical hazards are hazards present in hazardous chemicals and hazardous materials. Exposure to certain chemicals can cause acute or long-term adverse health effects. Chemical hazards are usually classified separately from biological hazards (biohazards). Chemical hazards are classified into groups that include asphyxiants, corrosives, irritants, sensitizers, carcinogens, mutagens, teratogens, reactants, and flammables. In the workplace, exposure to chemical hazards is a type of occupational hazard. The use of personal protective equipment may substantially reduce the risk of adverse health effects from contact with hazardous materials.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational hazard</span> Hazard experienced in the workplace

An occupational hazard is a hazard experienced in the workplace. This encompasses many types of hazards, including chemical hazards, biological hazards (biohazards), psychosocial hazards, and physical hazards. In the United States, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conduct workplace investigations and research addressing workplace health and safety hazards resulting in guidelines. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) establishes enforceable standards to prevent workplace injuries and illnesses. In the EU, a similar role is taken by EU-OSHA.

A recommended exposure limit (REL) is an occupational exposure limit that has been recommended by the United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. The REL is a level that NIOSH believes would be protective of worker safety and health over a working lifetime if used in combination with engineering and work practice controls, exposure and medical monitoring, posting and labeling of hazards, worker training and personal protective equipment. To formulate these recommendations, NIOSH evaluates all known and available medical, biological, engineering, chemical, trade, and other information. Although not legally enforceable limits, RELS are transmitted to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) or the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) of the U.S. Department of Labor for use in promulgating legal standards.

Bioenvironmental Engineers (BEEs) within the United States Air Force (USAF) blend the understanding of fundamental engineering principles with a broad preventive medicine mission to identify, evaluate and recommend controls for hazards that could harm USAF Airmen, employees, and their families. The information from these evaluations help BEEs design control measures and make recommendations that prevent illness and injury across multiple specialty areas, to include: Occupational Health, Environmental Health, Radiation Safety, and Emergency Response. BEEs are provided both initial and advanced instruction at the United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vented balance safety enclosure</span>

Vented balance safety enclosures are used in pharmaceutical, chemical, biological, and toxicological laboratories to provide maximum containment for weighing operations in weighing scales.

Workplace health surveillance or occupational health surveillance (U.S.) is the ongoing systematic collection, analysis, and dissemination of exposure and health data on groups of workers. The Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health at its 12th Session in 1995 defined an occupational health surveillance system as "a system which includes a functional capacity for data collection, analysis and dissemination linked to occupational health programmes".

Prevention through design (PtD), also called safety by design usually in Europe, is the concept of applying methods to minimize occupational hazards early in the design process, with an emphasis on optimizing employee health and safety throughout the life cycle of materials and processes. It is a concept and movement that encourages construction or product designers to "design out" health and safety risks during design development. The process also encourages the various stakeholders within a construction project to be collaborative and share the responsibilities of workers' safety evenly. The concept supports the view that along with quality, programme and cost; safety is determined during the design stage. It increases the cost-effectiveness of enhancements to occupational safety and health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical hazard</span> Hazard due to a physical agent

A physical hazard is an agent, factor or circumstance that can cause harm with contact. They can be classified as type of occupational hazard or environmental hazard. Physical hazards include ergonomic hazards, radiation, heat and cold stress, vibration hazards, and noise hazards. Engineering controls are often used to mitigate physical hazards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hierarchy of hazard controls</span> System used in industry to eliminate or minimize exposure to hazards

Hierarchy of hazard control is a system used in industry to prioritize possible interventions to minimize or eliminate exposure to hazards. It is a widely accepted system promoted by numerous safety organizations. This concept is taught to managers in industry, to be promoted as standard practice in the workplace. It has also been used to inform public policy, in fields such as road safety. Various illustrations are used to depict this system, most commonly a triangle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Safe-in-Sound Award</span>

The Safe-in-Sound Excellence in Hearing Loss Prevention Award is an occupational health and safety award that was established in 2007 through a partnership between the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the National Hearing Conservation Association (NHCA). In 2018, the partnership was extended to include the Council for Accreditation in Occupational Hearing Conservation (CAOHC).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupational hearing loss</span> Form of hearing loss

Occupational hearing loss (OHL) is hearing loss that occurs as a result of occupational hazards, such as excessive noise and ototoxic chemicals. Noise is a common workplace hazard, and recognized as the risk factor for noise-induced hearing loss and tinnitus but it is not the only risk factor that can result in a work-related hearing loss. Also, noise-induced hearing loss can result from exposures that are not restricted to the occupational setting.

Dustiness may be defined as the propensity of a finely divided solid to form an airborne dust (aerosol) from a mechanical or aerodynamic stimulus. Dustiness can be influenced by particle morphology (shape), size, and inter-particle forces. Dustiness increases the risk of inhalation exposure.

The health and safety hazards of nanomaterials include the potential toxicity of various types of nanomaterials, as well as fire and dust explosion hazards. Because nanotechnology is a recent development, the health and safety effects of exposures to nanomaterials, and what levels of exposure may be acceptable, are subjects of ongoing research. Of the possible hazards, inhalation exposure appears to present the most concern, with animal studies showing pulmonary effects such as inflammation, fibrosis, and carcinogenicity for some nanomaterials. Skin contact and ingestion exposure, and dust explosion hazards, are also a concern.

Hazard substitution is a hazard control strategy in which a material or process is replaced with another that is less hazardous. Substitution is the second most effective of the five members of the hierarchy of hazard controls in protecting workers, after elimination. Substitution and elimination are most effective early in the design process, when they may be inexpensive and simple to implement, while for an existing process they may require major changes in equipment and procedures. The concept of prevention through design emphasizes integrating the more effective control methods such as elimination and substitution early in the design phase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Engineering controls for nanomaterials</span>

Engineering controls for nanomaterials are a set of hazard control methods and equipment for workers who interact with nanomaterials. Engineering controls are physical changes to the workplace that isolate workers from hazards, and are considered the most important set of methods for controlling the health and safety hazards of nanomaterials after systems and facilities have been designed.

Research on the health and safety hazards of 3D printing is new and in development due to the recent proliferation of 3D printing devices. In 2017, the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work has published a discussion paper on the processes and materials involved in 3D printing, potential implications of this technology for occupational safety and health and avenues for controlling potential hazards.

References

PD-icon.svg This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health .

  1. ↑ "NIOSH Directory of Engineering Controls". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health . Retrieved 2016-06-13.
  2. ↑ Roelofs, Cora (1 January 2007). Preventing Hazards at the Source. American Industrial Hygiene Association. pp. 9ff. ISBN   978-1-931504-83-6.
  3. ↑ "Hierarchy of Controls" (PDF). U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration . Retrieved 2017-03-09.
  4. 1 2 "Hierarchy of Controls - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 2017-01-30.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  5. ↑ "Hazard Identification, Elimination and Control". Health Sciences Association of Alberta. Archived from the original on 2017-03-14. Retrieved 2017-03-13.
  6. ↑ Nix, Doug (2011-02-28). "Understanding the Hierarchy of Controls". Machinery Safety 101. Retrieved 2017-03-10.
  7. ↑ "Engineering Controls Database". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 2019-08-19.
  8. ↑ "Hierarchy of Controls". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health . Retrieved 2017-01-30.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Current Strategies for Engineering Controls in Nanomaterial Production and Downstream Handling Processes". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. November 2013. doi: 10.26616/NIOSHPUB2014102 . Retrieved 2017-03-05.
  10. ↑ "Control guidance sheet S100 - General advice; Chemicals causing harm via skin or eye contact" (PDF). UK Health and Safety Executive. 2003-10-01. Retrieved 2019-08-19.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "General Safe Practices for Working with Engineered Nanomaterials in Research Laboratories". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. May 2012. doi: 10.26616/NIOSHPUB2012147 . Retrieved 2017-03-05.
  12. 1 2 National Research Council (US) Committee on Prudent Practices in the Laboratory (2011-03-25). Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Management of Chemical Hazards, Updated Version. U.S. National Research Council. doi:10.17226/12654. ISBN   9780309138642. PMID   21796825.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 "Building a Safety Program to Protect the Nanotechnology Workforce: A Guide for Small to Medium-Sized Enterprises". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. March 2016. doi: 10.26616/NIOSHPUB2016102 . hdl: 10919/76615 . Retrieved 2017-03-05.
  14. ↑ Industrial ventilation: a manual of recommended practice for design. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (29th ed.). 2006. ISBN   9781607260875. OCLC   939428191.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  15. 1 2 Couch, James; Page, Elena; Dunn, Kevin L. (March 2016). "Evaluation of Metal Exposure at a Nanoparticle Research and Development Company" (PDF). U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. p. 7. Retrieved 2017-03-18.
  16. 1 2 Hirst, Nigel; Brocklebank, Mike; Ryder, Martyn (2002). Containment systems: a design guide. Institution of Chemical Engineers. ISBN   0852954077. OCLC   663998513.
  17. ↑ "Ergonomics and Musculoskeletal Disorders | NIOSH | CDC". 31 August 2020.
  18. ↑ Bickrest, Ed (March 2009). "Fall Protection: Failure is Not an Option". EHS Today. Vol. 2, no. 3. Penton Media, INC / Endeavor Business Media. p. 34-37. ISSN   1945-9599. EBSCOhost   37246550. Gale   A197803359. ProQuest   224595635. Archived from the original on 2022-12-19. Retrieved 2024-09-09.
  19. ↑ "CDC - Noise and Hearing Loss Prevention - NIOSH". www.cdc.gov. 2019-05-30. Retrieved 2019-08-19.
  20. ↑ "Preventing Hearing Loss: Noise Infographics | CPWR". www.cpwr.com. Retrieved 2019-08-19.
  21. ↑ Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Noise Exposure: Revised Criteria 1998 (Report). Cincinnati, Ohio: Public Health Service / National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. June 1998. doi:10.26616/nioshpub98126. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 98–126. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-09-09. Retrieved 2024-09-09.
  22. ↑ "1910.95 - Occupational noise exposure. | Occupational Safety and Health Administration". www.osha.gov. Retrieved 2019-08-19.
  23. ↑ "OSHA Technical Manual (OTM) | Section III: Chapter 5 - Noise | Occupational Safety and Health Administration". www.osha.gov. Retrieved 2019-08-19.
  24. ↑ Tingay, James (October 1, 2016). "Proven Methods for Reducing Noise Exposures -". Occupational Health & Safety. 85 (10). Waco, Tex.: 26, 28, 30. PMID   30280856 . Retrieved 2019-08-19.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  25. ↑ "Best practices for the assessment and control of psychological hazards: best practices guidelines for occupational health and safety in the healthcare industry - Open Government". Work Safe Alberta. 2011. Retrieved 2019-08-19.

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