Engineering controls for nanomaterials

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A fume hood is an example of an engineering control that uses local exhaust ventilation combined with an enclosure to isolate a worker from nanomaterials that may become airborne. Fume hood conventional.png
A fume hood is an example of an engineering control that uses local exhaust ventilation combined with an enclosure to isolate a worker from nanomaterials that may become airborne.

Engineering controls for nanomaterials are a set of hazard control methods and equipment for workers who interact with nanomaterials. Engineering controls are physical changes to the workplace that isolate workers from hazards, and are considered the most important set of methods for controlling the health and safety hazards of nanomaterials after systems and facilities have been designed.

Contents

The primary hazard of nanomaterials is health effects from inhalation of aerosols containing nanoparticles. Many engineering controls developed for other industries can be used or adapted for protecting workers from exposure to nanomaterials, including ventilation and filtering using laboratory fixtures such as fume hoods, containment using gloveboxes, and other non-ventilation controls such as sticky mats. Research is ongoing as to what engineering controls are most effective for nanomaterials.

Background

Engineering controls

Engineering controls are the third most effective member of the hierarchy of hazard controls. They are preferred over administrative controls and personal protective equipment, but are less preferred than elimination or substitution of the hazards. NIOSH's "Hierarchy of Controls infographic" as SVG.svg
Engineering controls are the third most effective member of the hierarchy of hazard controls. They are preferred over administrative controls and personal protective equipment, but are less preferred than elimination or substitution of the hazards.

Controlling exposures to occupational hazards is considered the fundamental method of protecting workers. Traditionally, a hierarchy of controls has been used as a means of determining how to implement feasible and effective controls, which typically include elimination, substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls, and personal protective equipment. Methods earlier in the list are considered generally more effective in reducing the risk associated with a hazard, with process changes and engineering controls recommended as the primary means for reducing exposures, and personal protective equipment being the approach of last resort. Following the hierarchy is intended to lead to the implementation of inherently safer systems, ones where the risk of illness or injury has been substantially reduced. [1]

Engineering controls are physical changes to the workplace that isolate workers from hazards by containing them in an enclosure, or removing contaminated air from the workplace through ventilation and filtering. Well-designed engineering controls are typically passive, in the sense of being independent of worker interactions, which reduces the potential for worker behavior to impact exposure levels. They also ideally do not interfere with productivity and ease of processing for the worker, because otherwise the operator may be motivated to circumvent the controls. The initial cost of engineering controls can be higher than administrative controls or personal protective equipment, but the long-term operating costs are frequently lower, and can sometimes provide cost savings in other areas of the process. [2] :10–11

Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials have at least one primary dimension of less than 100 nanometers, and often have properties different from those of their bulk components that are technologically useful. Because nanotechnology is a recent development, the health and safety effects of exposures to nanomaterials, and what levels of exposure may be acceptable, is not yet fully understood. [2] :1–3 Processing and manufacturing of nanomaterials involve a wide range of hazards. The types of engineering controls optimal for each situation is influenced by the quantity and dustiness of the material as well as the duration of the task. For example, stronger engineering controls are indicated if dry nanomaterials cannot be substituted with a suspension, or if procedures such as sonication or cutting of a solid matrix containing nanomaterials cannot be eliminated. [3] :9–11

As with any new technology, the earliest exposures are expected to occur among workers conducting research in laboratories and pilot plants. It is recommended that researchers handling engineered nanomaterials in these contexts perform that work in a manner that is protective of their safety and health. [4] :1 Control measures for nanoparticles, dusts, and other hazards are most effective when implemented within the context of a comprehensive occupational safety and health management system, the critical elements of which include management commitment and employee involvement, worksite analysis, hazard prevention and control, and sufficient training for employees, supervisors, and managers. [5]

Ventilation

Ventilation systems are distinguished as being either local or general. Local exhaust ventilation operates at or near the source of contamination, often in conjunction with an enclosure, while general exhaust ventilation operates on an entire room through a building's HVAC system. [2] :11–12

Local exhaust ventilation

Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) is the application of an exhaust system at or near the source of contamination. If properly designed, it will be much more efficient at removing contaminants than dilution ventilation, requiring lower exhaust volumes, less make-up air, and, in many cases, lower costs. By applying exhaust at the source, contaminants are removed before they get into the general work environment. [2] :12

Examples of local exhaust systems include fume hoods, vented balance enclosures, and biosafety cabinets. Exhaust hoods lacking an enclosure are less preferable, and laminar flow hoods are not recommended because they direct air outwards towards the worker. [4] :18–28

In 2006, a survey was conducted of international nanotechnology firms and research laboratories that reported manufacturing, handling, researching, or using nanomaterials. All organizations participating in the survey reported using some type of engineering control. The most common exposure control used was the traditional laboratory fume hood, with two-thirds of firms reporting its use. [6]

Fume hoods

Vented balance enclosures used in the pharmaceutical industry can be used for nanomaterials, with the advantages of smaller size and lower turbulence. Powder-handling enclosure 2.png
Vented balance enclosures used in the pharmaceutical industry can be used for nanomaterials, with the advantages of smaller size and lower turbulence.

Fume hoods are recommended to have an average inward velocity of 80–100 feet per minute (fpm) at the face of the hood. For higher toxicity materials, a higher face velocity of 100–120 fpm is recommended in order to provide better protection. However, face velocities exceeding 150 fpm are not believed to improve performance, and could increase hood leakage. [7]

New fume hoods specifically designed for nanotechnology are being developed primarily based on low-turbulence balance enclosures, which were initially developed for the weighing of pharmaceutical powders; these nanomaterial handling enclosures provide adequate containment at lower face velocities, typically operating at 65–85 fpm. [7] They are useful for weighing operations, which disturb the nanomaterial and increase its aerosolization. [4] :27–28

It is recommended that air exiting a fume hood should be passed through a HEPA filter and exhausted outside the work environment, with used filters being handled as hazardous waste. Turbulence can cause nanomaterials to exit the front of the hood, and can be avoided by keeping the sash in the proper position, keeping the interior of the hood uncluttered with equipment, and not making fast movements while working. High face velocities can result in loss of powdered nanomaterials; while as of 2012 there was little research on the effectiveness for low-flow fume hoods, there was evidence that air curtain hoods were effective at containing nanoparticles. [4] :19–24

Other enclosures

Biosafety cabinets, although designed to contain bioaerosols, can also be used to contain nanomaterials. Superciste prostory.jpg
Biosafety cabinets, although designed to contain bioaerosols, can also be used to contain nanomaterials.

Biosafety cabinets are designed to contain bioaerosols, which have a similar size to engineered nanoparticles, and are believed to be effective with nanoparticles. However, common biosafety cabinets are more prone to turbulence. As with fume hoods, they are recommended to be exhausted outside the facility. [4] :25–27

Dedicated large-scale ventilated enclosures for large pieces of equipment can also be used. [3] :9–11

General exhaust ventilation

General exhaust ventilation (GEV), also called dilution ventilation, is different from local exhaust ventilation because instead of capturing emissions at their source and removing them from the air, general exhaust ventilation allows the contaminant to be emitted into the workplace air and then dilutes the concentration of the contaminant to an acceptable level. GEV is inefficient and costly as compared to local exhaust ventilation, and given the lack of established exposure limits for most nanomaterials, they are not recommended to be relied upon for controlling exposure. [2] :11–12

However, GEV can provide negative room pressure to prevent contaminants from exiting the room. The use of supply and exhaust air throughout the facility can provide pressurization schemes that reduce the number of workers exposed to potentially hazardous materials, for example keeping production areas at a negative pressure with respect to nearby areas. [2] :11–12 For general exhaust ventilation in laboratories, a nonrecirculating system is used with 4–12 air changes per hour when used in tandem with local exhaust ventilation, and sources of contamination are placed close to the air exhaust and downwind of workers, and away from windows or doors that may cause air drafts. [4] :13

Control verification

Several control verification techniques can be used to assess room airflow patterns and verify the proper operation of LEV systems. It is considered important to confirm that an LEV system is operating as designed by regularly measuring exhaust airflows. A standard measurement, hood static pressure, provides information on airflow changes that affect hood performance. For hoods designed to prevent exposures to hazardous airborne contaminants, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists recommends the installation of a fixed hood static pressure gauge. [8]

Additionally, Pitot tubes, hot-wire anemometers, smoke generators, and dry ice tests can be used to qualitatively measure hood slot/face and duct air velocity, while tracer-gas leak testing is a quantitative method. [2] :50–52, 59 Standardized testing and certification procedures such as ANSI Z9.5 and ASHRAE 110 can be used, as can qualitative indicators of proper installation and functionality such as inspection of gaskets and hoses. [2] :59–60 [3] :14–15

Containment

Gloveboxes are completely enclosed, but are more difficult to use than fume hoods, and may leak if used under positive pressure. Glovebox.jpg
Gloveboxes are completely enclosed, but are more difficult to use than fume hoods, and may leak if used under positive pressure.

Containment refers to the physical isolation of a process or a piece of equipment to prevent the release of the hazardous material into the workplace. [4] :13 It can be used in conjunction with ventilation measures to provide an enhanced level of protection for nanomaterial workers. Examples include placing equipment that may release nanomaterials in a separate room. [3] :9–11 [9] Standard dust control methods such as enclosures for conveyor systems or using a sealed system for bag filling are effective at reducing respirable dust concentrations. [2] :16–17

Non-ventilation engineering controls can also include devices developed for the pharmaceutical industry, including isolation containment systems. One of the most common flexible isolation systems is glovebox containment, which can be used as an enclosure around small-scale powder processes, such as mixing and drying. Rigid glovebox isolation units also provide a method for isolating the worker from the process and are often used for medium-scale operations involving transfer of powders. Glovebags are similar to rigid gloveboxes, but they are flexible and disposable. They are used for small operations for containment or protection from contamination. [10] Gloveboxes are sealed systems that provide a high degree of operator protection, but are more difficult to use due to limited mobility and size of operation. Transferring materials into and out of the enclosure also is an exposure risk. In addition, some gloveboxes are configured to use positive pressure, which can increase the risk of leaks. [4] :24–28

Another non-ventilation control used in this industry is the continuous liner system, which allows the filling of product containers while enclosing the material in a polypropylene bag. This system is often used for off-loading materials when the powders are to be packed into drums. [10]

Other engineering controls

A sticky mat in a nanomaterials production facility. Ideally, other engineering controls should lessen the amount of dust collecting on the floor and being tracked onto the sticky mat, unlike this example. Sticky mat with nanomaterials.png
A sticky mat in a nanomaterials production facility. Ideally, other engineering controls should lessen the amount of dust collecting on the floor and being tracked onto the sticky mat, unlike this example.

Other non-ventilation engineering controls in general cover a range of control measures, such as guards and barricades, material treatment, or additives. One example is placing walk-off sticky mats at room exits. [3] :9–11 [9] Antistatic devices can be used when handling nanomaterials to reduce their electrostatic charge, making them less likely to disperse or adhere to clothing. [4] :28 Water spray application is also an effective method for reducing respirable dust concentrations. [2] :16–17

Related Research Articles

The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH®) is a professional association of industrial hygienists and practitioners of related professions, with headquarters in Cincinnati, Ohio. One of its goals is to advance worker protection by providing timely, objective, scientific information to occupational and environmental health professionals.

Fume hood type of local ventilation device

A fume hood is a type of local ventilation device that is designed to limit exposure to hazardous or toxic fumes, vapors or dusts.

Occupational hygiene Management of workplace health hazards

Occupational hygiene is the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, control, and confirmation of protection from hazards at work that may result in injury, illness, or affect the well being of workers. These hazards or stressors are typically divided into the categories biological, chemical, physical, ergonomic and psychosocial. The risk of a health effect from a given stressor is a function of the hazard multiplied by the exposure to the individual or group. For chemicals, the hazard can be understood by the dose response profile most often based on toxicological studies or models. Occupational hygienists work closely with toxicologists for understanding chemical hazards, physicists for physical hazards, and physicians and microbiologists for biological hazards Environmental and occupational hygienists are considered experts in exposure science and exposure risk management. Depending on an individual's type of job, a hygienist will apply their exposure science expertise for the protection of workers, consumers and/or communities.

Nanomaterials Materials whose granular size lies between 1 to 100 nm

Nanomaterials describe, in principle, materials of which a single unit small sized between 1 and 100 nm.

Sawdust matter

Sawdust is a by-product or waste product of woodworking operations such as sawing, milling, planing, routing, drilling and sanding. It is composed of fine particles of wood. These operations can be performed by woodworking machinery, portable power tools or by use of hand tools. Wood dust is also the byproduct of certain animals, birds and insects which live in wood, such as the woodpecker and carpenter ant. In some manufacturing industries it can be a significant fire hazard and source of occupational dust exposure.

The impact of nanotechnology extends from its medical, ethical, mental, legal and environmental applications, to fields such as engineering, biology, chemistry, computing, materials science, and communications.

Nanotoxicology is the study of the toxicity of nanomaterials. Because of quantum size effects and large surface area to volume ratio, nanomaterials have unique properties compared with their larger counterparts that affect their toxicity. Of the possible hazards, inhalation exposure appears to present the most concern, with animal studies showing pulmonary effects such as inflammation, fibrosis, and carcinogenicity for some nanomaterials. Skin contact and ingestion exposure are also a concern.

Vented balance safety enclosure

Vented balance safety enclosures are used in pharmaceutical, chemical, biological, and toxicological laboratories to provide maximum containment for weighing operations in weighing scales.

Workplace health surveillance or occupational health surveillance (U.S.) is the ongoing systematic collection, analysis, and dissemination of exposure and health data on groups of workers. The Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health at its 12th Session in 1995 defined an occupational health surveillance system as “a system which includes a functional capacity for data collection, analysis and dissemination linked to occupational health programmes”.

Physical hazard Hazard due to a physical agent

A physical hazard is an agent, factor or circumstance that can cause harm without contact. They can be classified as type of occupational hazard or environmental hazard. Physical hazards include ergonomic hazards, radiation, heat and cold stress, vibration hazards, and noise hazards. Engineering controls are often used to mitigate physical hazards.

Hierarchy of hazard controls System used in industry to eliminate or minimize exposure to hazards

Hierarchy of hazard control is a system used in industry to minimize or eliminate exposure to hazards. It is a widely accepted system promoted by numerous safety organizations. This concept is taught to managers in industry, to be promoted as standard practice in the workplace. Various illustrations are used to depict this system, most commonly a triangle.

Dustiness is the tendency of particles to become airborne in response to a mechanical or aerodynamic stimulus. Dustiness is affected by the particle shape, size, and inherent electrostatic forces. Dustiness increases the risk of inhalation exposure.

Engineering controls are strategies designed to protect workers from hazardous conditions by placing a barrier between the worker and the hazard or by removing a hazardous substance through air ventilation. Engineering controls involve a physical change to the workplace itself, rather than relying on workers' behavior or requiring workers to wear protective clothing.

Occupational dust exposure

Occupational dust exposure can occur in various settings, including agriculture, forestry, and mining. Dust hazards include those that arise from handling grain and cotton, as well as from mining coal. Wood dust, commonly referred to as "sawdust", is another occupational dust hazard that can pose a risk to workers' health.

The health and safety hazards of nanomaterials include the potential toxicity of various types of nanomaterials, as well as fire and dust explosion hazards. Because nanotechnology is a recent development, the health and safety effects of exposures to nanomaterials, and what levels of exposure may be acceptable, are subjects of ongoing research. Of the possible hazards, inhalation exposure appears to present the most concern, with animal studies showing pulmonary effects such as inflammation, fibrosis, and carcinogenicity for some nanomaterials. Skin contact and ingestion exposure, and dust explosion hazards, are also a concern.

Hazard substitution is a hazard control strategy in which a material or process is replaced with another that is less hazardous. Substitution is the second most effective of the five members of the hierarchy of hazard controls in protecting workers, after elimination. Substitution and elimination are most effective early in the design process, when they may be inexpensive and simple to implement, while for an existing process they may require major changes in equipment and procedures. The concept of prevention through design emphasizes integrating the more effective control methods such as elimination and substitution early in the design phase.

A radioactive nanoparticle is a nanoparticle that contains radioactive materials. Radioactive nanoparticles have applications in medical diagnostics, medical imaging, toxicokinetics, and environmental health, and are being investigated for applications in nuclear nanomedicine. Radioactive nanoparticles present special challenges in operational health physics and internal dosimetry that are not present for other substances, although existing radiation protection measures and hazard controls for nanoparticles generally apply.

Characterization of nanoparticles Measurement of physical and chemical properties of nanoparticles

The characterization of nanoparticles is a branch of nanometrology that deals with the characterization, or measurement, of the physical and chemical properties of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles measure less than 100 nanometers in at least one of their external dimensions, and are often engineered for their unique properties. Nanoparticles are unlike conventional chemicals in that their chemical composition and concentration are not sufficient metrics for a complete description, because they vary in other physical properties such as size, shape, surface properties, crystallinity, and dispersion state.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticle nanomaterial

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles, also called ultrafine titanium dioxide or nanocrystalline titanium dioxide or microcrystalline titanium dioxide, are particles of titanium dioxide (TiO2) with diameters less than 100 nm. Ultrafine TiO2 is used in sunscreens due to its ability to block UV radiation while remaining transparent on the skin. It is in rutile crystal structure and coated with silica or/and alumina to prevent photocatalytic phenomena. The health risks of ultrafine TiO2 from dermal exposure on intact skin are considered extremely low, and it is considered safer than other substances used for UV protection.

Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19 Prevention measures for COVID-19

Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19 are the application of occupational safety and health methodologies for hazard controls to the prevention of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The proper hazard controls in the workplace depend on the worksite and job task, based on a risk assessment of sources of exposure, disease severity in the community, and risk factors of individual workers who may be vulnerable to contracting COVID-19.

References

  1. ↑ "Hierarchy of Controls". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health . Retrieved 2017-01-30.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "Current Strategies for Engineering Controls in Nanomaterial Production and Downstream Handling Processes". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. November 2013. Retrieved 2017-03-05.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Building a Safety Program to Protect the Nanotechnology Workforce: A Guide for Small to Medium-Sized Enterprises". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. March 2016. Retrieved 2017-03-05.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "General Safe Practices for Working with Engineered Nanomaterials in Research Laboratories". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. May 2012. Retrieved 2017-03-05.
  5. ↑ Occupational health and safety management systems. American Industrial Hygiene Association and American National Standards Institute. 2012. ISBN   9781935082354. OCLC   813044597.
  6. ↑ Conti, Joseph A.; Killpack, Keith; Gerritzen, Gina; Huang, Leia; Mircheva, Maria; Delmas, Magali; Harthorn, Barbara Herr; Appelbaum, Richard P.; Holden, Patricia A. (2008-05-01). "Health and safety practices in the nanomaterials workplace: results from an international survey". Environmental Science & Technology. 42 (9): 3155–3162. Bibcode:2008EnST...42.3155C. doi: 10.1021/es702158q . ISSN   0013-936X. PMID   18522088.
  7. 1 2 National Research Council (US) Committee on Prudent Practices in the Laboratory (2011-03-25). Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Management of Chemical Hazards, Updated Version. U.S. National Research Council. doi:10.17226/12654. ISBN   9780309138642. PMID   21796825.
  8. ↑ Industrial ventilation: a manual of recommended practice for design. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (29th ed.). 2006. ISBN   9781607260875. OCLC   939428191.CS1 maint: others (link)
  9. 1 2 Couch, James; Page, Elena; Dunn, Kevin L. (March 2016). "Evaluation of Metal Exposure at a Nanoparticle Research and Development Company" (PDF). U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. p. 7. Retrieved 2017-03-18.
  10. 1 2 Hirst, Nigel; Brocklebank, Mike; Ryder, Martyn (2002). Containment systems: a design guide. Institution of Chemical Engineers. ISBN   0852954077. OCLC   663998513.
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