Diving mask

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Diving mask
Tauchen1.jpg
Snorkeler wearing a clear silicone diving mask
Other names
  • Half mask
  • Scuba mask
  • Free-diving mask
  • Snorkelling mask
UsesProvides clear underwater vision for divers
Related items Full-face mask, Swimming goggles

A diving mask (also half mask, dive mask or scuba mask) is an item of diving equipment that allows underwater divers, including scuba divers, free-divers, and snorkelers, to see clearly underwater. [1] [2] Surface supplied divers usually use a full face mask or diving helmet, but in some systems the half mask may be used. [2] When the human eye is in direct contact with water as opposed to air, its normal environment, light entering the eye is refracted by a different angle and the eye is unable to focus the light on the retina. By providing an air space in front of the eyes, the eye is able to focus nearly normally. The shape of the air space in the mask slightly affects the ability to focus. Corrective lenses can be fitted to the inside surface of the viewport or contact lenses may be worn inside the mask to allow normal vision for people with focusing defects.

Contents

When the diver descends, the ambient pressure rises, and it becomes necessary to equalise the pressure inside the mask with the external ambient pressure to avoid the barotrauma known as mask squeeze. This is done by allowing sufficient air to flow out through the nose into the mask to relieve the pressure difference, which requires the nose to be included in the airspace of the mask. Equalisation during ascent is automatic as excess air inside the mask easily leaks out past the seal.

A wide range of viewport shapes and internal volumes are available, and each design will generally fit some shapes of face better than others. A good comfortable fit and a reliable seal around the edges of the rubber skirt is important to the correct function of the mask. National and international standards relating to diving masks provide a means of ensuring that they are manufactured to a suitable quality.

Function

Views through a flat mask, above and below water FlatMask above-below.jpg
Views through a flat mask, above and below water

Light rays bend when they travel from one medium to another; the amount of bending is determined by the refractive indices of the two media. If one medium has a particular curved shape, it functions as a lens. The cornea, humours, and crystalline lens of the eye together form a lens system that focuses images on the retina. Our eyes are adapted for viewing in air. Water, however, has approximately the same refractive index as the cornea (both about 1.33), so immersion effectively eliminates the cornea's focusing properties. When our eyes are in water, instead of focusing images on the retina, they now focus them far behind the retina, resulting in an extremely blurred image from hypermetropia. [3]

By wearing a flat diving mask, humans can see clearly under water. [3] [4] [5] The scuba mask's flat window separates the eyes from the surrounding water by a layer of air. Light rays entering from water into the flat parallel window change their direction minimally within the window material itself. [3] But when these rays exit the window into the air space between the flat window and the eye, the refraction is quite noticeable. The view paths refract (bend) in a manner similar to viewing fish kept in an aquarium. [6]

Refraction of light entering the mask makes objects appear about 34% bigger and 25% nearer when underwater. Also, pincushion distortion and lateral chromatic aberration are noticeable. As the diver descends in clean water, the water acts as a colour filter eliminating the red end of the visible spectrum of the sunlight entering the water leaving only the blue end of the spectrum. Depending on the depth and clarity of the water, eventually all sunlight is blocked and the diver has to rely on artificial light sources to see underwater. [3] [7]

Construction

Disassembled components of a single-window, low-volume dive mask Disassembled diving mask.jpg
Disassembled components of a single-window, low-volume dive mask
Assembled diving half-mask showing the retaining strap Diving mask.JPG
Assembled diving half-mask showing the retaining strap

There are two basic categories of diving mask: The half mask covers the eyes and nose, and the full face mask covers eyes, nose and mouth, and therefore includes a part of the breathing apparatus. The half-mask is described here. [8] : 4–17 

Diving masks may have a single, durable, tempered glass faceplate, or two lenses in front of the eyes. These may be supported by a relatively rigid plastic or metal frame, or they may be permanently bonded to the rim of the skirt, in a construction known as "frameless". In the case of freediving masks, which need to have a low internal volume to minimize the amount of breath needed to equalize the change of pressure that occurs with depth, the lenses may be made of polycarbonate plastic. The best scuba masks are sealed well. There is usually a "skirt" of synthetic rubber or silicone elastomer to support the frame and lenses and create a watertight seal with the diver's face. [1] [8] : 4–17  The skirt material may be almost transparent, translucent or opaque. A nearly transparent skirt provides a greater peripheral vision, though somewhat distorted, and may reduce the feeling of claustrophobia in some divers, but in some cases the light entering through the sides may cause distracting internal reflections. The skirt also encloses the nose, usually by means of a nose pocket, so that air can be exhaled through the nose into the mask to equalise the internal pressure during descent and thereby avoid possible barotrauma of the enclosed area of the face. [9] The section of the mask covering the nose must allow the wearer to block the nostrils while equalising pressure in the middle ear. All diving masks have means to keep them in position, usually an elastomer strap of similar material to the skirt, [1] but occasionally an expanded neoprene pad with velcro straps is used. Mask straps are usually wider at the back or split into an upper and lower strap at the back of the head for stability and comfort. [8] : 4–17 

Some masks had a one-way purge valve under the nose to let water out, but this is no longer common as they were neither necessary nor reliable, and often leaked. [8] : 4–17 

Manufacturing standards

GOST 20568:1975 compliant Russian and Ukrainian diving masks GOST 20568 compliant Russian and Ukrainian diving masks.jpg
GOST 20568:1975 compliant Russian and Ukrainian diving masks

Nine national and international standards relating to diving masks are known to exist: British standard BS 4532:1969 (amended 1977); [10] USSR and CIS standard GOST 20568:1975 (Active); [11] German standard DIN 7877:1980; [12] Polish Industry Standard BN-82/8444-17.01 (Active). [13] American national standard ANSI Z87.11:1985 (Active); [14] Austrian standard ÖNORM S 4225:1988; [15] Chinese national standard CNS 12497:1989 (Active); [16] Chinese national standard CNS 12498:1989 (Active); [17] and European standard EN 16805:2015 (Active). [18]

Visual correction

Scuba diver with bifocal lenses in half mask PBS bifocal mask P9251477.JPG
Scuba diver with bifocal lenses in half mask

Diving masks can be fitted with prescription lenses for divers needing optical correction to improve vision. [19] Corrective lenses are ground flat on one side and optically cemented to the inside face of the mask lens. This provides the same amount of correction above and below the surface of the water. Bifocal lenses are also available for this application. Some masks are made with removable lenses, and a range of standard corrective lenses are available which can be fitted. Plastic self-adhesive lenses that can be applied to the inside of the mask may fall off if the mask is flooded for a significant period. Contact lenses may be worn under a mask or helmet, but there is some risk of losing them if the mask is dislodged in turbulent water. [7] [20]

Fit

A mask is considered to fit well when it seals comfortably and effectively all round the skirt, and provides a good field of vision, without pressing on the nose or forehead while in use underwater. A low internal volume is considered desirable by freedivers, as less breath is wasted to equalise, and by scuba divers, as there is less tendency to press up under the nose due to buoyancy, which becomes uncomfortable quite quickly. [21]

Divers may test whether a mask is a good fit by placing it on their face, without using the straps, and gently inhaling through their nose. If the mask stays on without any help this indicates that no air is being drawn in and that the skirt is in sufficient contact with the facial skin all the way round the mask. Optimum sealing requires that hair strands do not cross under the edge of the seal, as they can provide a path for water to leak into the mask. This is more a problem with the forehead hairline than with lower facial hair, as water from the top tends to run into the eyes, while water pooling at the bottom is easily purged by exhaling a small volume of air through the nose. Most bearded divers learn to manage the slight leakage without difficulty, inconvenience, or greasing the moustache. Other factors affecting a comfortable fit are sufficient space for the nose in the nose pocket, no contact between the rigid mask frame and the bridge of the nose, and no excessive pressure on the forehead. There should also be sufficient space between the mask lenses and the face that the eyelashes do not contact the glass noticeably when blinking. [22]

Use

The strap can be adjusted to suit the diver's head. Too loose may not provide an effective seal and the mask may dislodge easily, and too tight may result in discomfort or pain. Correct positioning of the strap around the back of the head will reduce the risk of dislodging and facilitate clearing. [23]

When entering the water while wearing the mask, the diver may need to manually prevent water impact from dislodging or knocking off the mask. Alternatively, a diver can enter the water with the mask off and then put it on or use an entry method which does not result in fast water flow over the mask. Wearing the mask pushed up onto the forehead while out of the water or on the surface increases the risk of the mask falling or being knocked off. [23]

To prevent a mask from fogging up due to condensation on the glass many divers spit into the dry mask before use, spread the saliva around the inside of the plate and rinse it out with a little water. The saliva residue allows condensation to wet the glass and form a continuous film, rather than form droplets. There are commercial products that can be used as an alternative to the saliva method, some of which are more effective and last longer. [24]

Standard maintenance is to rinse inside and out with clean, fresh water after each day's use, and allow to dry out of direct sunlight before storage. Ultraviolet light degrades the synthetic materials of the skirt and frame. A well-maintained mask should last for several years. The strap is the most stressed component and is often the first part to fail, but can usually be replaced. Inspection of the strap for cracks and tears before use can reduce the risk of failure during a dive. [23] : 56 

Mask removal and refitting underwater and clearing are basic skills that all divers must learn so that they can deal with flooding and leaks or the mask being dislodged without panic. [21]

Mask clearing

Practicing mask clearing during entry level training Frau beim Tauchen (2).jpg
Practicing mask clearing during entry level training

It is quite common for water to leak into the mask, which can be annoying, or interfere with clear vision, and the diver needs to be able to get rid of the water quickly and effectively. Reasons for the leakage include poor fit or fitting, leaking via head or facial hair, movement of the facial muscles causing temporary leaks, or impact of external objects against the mask, which may distort it temporarily, or move it so that it leaks, or in extreme cases dislodge it entirely from the diver's head. [8] : 6–13 

The methods of clearing differ between the half mask, which covers the eyes and nose, and the full-face mask, which also covers the mouth. If the mask has a purge valve and the strap tension is correct, the diver holds the head so that the valve is at the lowest point and exhales through the nose. If the mask is a good fit on the diver's face and the strap is correctly placed, exhaling through the nose will usually drive water out along the bottom edge of the skirt. It may be necessary to press the upper part of the mask against the face to improve the seal if the diver is rolled to one side. If the fit is not perfect, or the strap is too low, contact pressure of the top edge against the forehead may be insufficient to maintain a seal when the head is upright. [8] : 6–13 

Equalizing

Pinching the nose while clearing the ears on descent Compensacion.jpg
Pinching the nose while clearing the ears on descent

The pressure changes during ascent and descent may affect gas spaces in the diver and diving equipment. A change in pressure will cause a pressure difference between the gas space and environment which will cause the gas to expand or compress if that is possible, and constraining the gas from expanding or compressing to balance the pressure may cause damage to the surrounding material or tissues by over-expansion or crushing. Some gas spaces, such as the mask, will automatically release excess gas as it expands during ascent, but have to be equalized during compression of descent. [21]

Equalising of the mask is an essential skill for any form of diving. Goggles that do not cover the nose can not be equalised and are unsuitable for diving. The mask is equalised by exhaling sufficient air through the nose to provide a balanced internal pressure. Any excess will simply leak out around the skirt. Equalising (or clearing) the ears is necessary to prevent barotrauma to the middle and inner ear. Some divers need to pinch the nostrils closed as part of their equalisation technique, and this must be allowed for in the design of the mask skirt. [21]

Types of diving half-mask

Early diving masks were made with a single pane of glass or transparent plastic, usually elliptical, but sometimes circular or approximately rectangular or triangular with rounded sides and corners. [25] These masks have indentations in the skirt at the bottom on either side of the nose, into which the diver can insert a thumb and forefinger to pinch the nose, when performing a valsalva maneuver to clear their ears. This design was improved by bringing the window closer to the face, reducing the volume of air inside the mask, thus making mask clearing easier. The window has a cutout to fit around the nose, which is covered by the rubber or silicone material of the skirt. This facilitates pinching the nose when ear-clearing. [21]

A further development is the mask with two windows, one for each eye. It can have the windows closer to the face than the one-window type, and therefore contain less internal volume for the diver to clear or equalise, and a lower buoyancy. These types are often called a "low-volume mask". [21] Participants in the sport of underwater hockey are required to use twin-lens masks of this type for their own safety – the sport uses a heavy lead puck similar to an ice hockey puck, but skillful players can flick the puck a considerable height off the bottom when making passes which leads to the possibility of accidental puck contact with other players. Should a puck hit the lens of a single-lens mask it may break the glass and pass through the aperture to hit the face and eyes, but with a twin-lens mask, though the glass may break, the frame will prevent the passage of the puck any further. [26]

Recent innovations have produced more complex designs, intended to provide extra features:

Alternative equipment

Diver wearing a lightweight full face mask Full face diving mask - ocean reef.JPG
Diver wearing a lightweight full face mask
Diver wearing heavy duty Kirby-Morgan band mask Engineer Diver.jpg
Diver wearing heavy duty Kirby-Morgan band mask

There are other types of equipment for underwater vision enhancement:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scuba set</span> Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus

A scuba set, originally just scuba, is any breathing apparatus that is entirely carried by an underwater diver and provides the diver with breathing gas at the ambient pressure. Scuba is an anacronym for self-contained underwater breathing apparatus. Although strictly speaking the scuba set is only the diving equipment that is required for providing breathing gas to the diver, general usage includes the harness or rigging by which it is carried and those accessories which are integral parts of the harness and breathing apparatus assembly, such as a jacket or wing style buoyancy compensator and instruments mounted in a combined housing with the pressure gauge. In the looser sense, scuba set has been used to refer to all the diving equipment used by the scuba diver, though this would more commonly and accurately be termed scuba equipment or scuba gear. Scuba is overwhelmingly the most common underwater breathing system used by recreational divers and is also used in professional diving when it provides advantages, usually of mobility and range, over surface-supplied diving systems and is allowed by the relevant legislation and code of practice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snorkeling</span> Swimming while inhaling through a snorkel

Snorkeling is the practice of swimming face down on or through a body of water while breathing the ambient air through a shaped tube called a snorkel, usually with swimming goggles or a diving mask, and swimfins. In cooler waters, a wetsuit may also be worn. The snorkel may be an independent item or integrated with the mask. The use of this equipment allows the snorkeler to observe the underwater environment for extended periods with relatively little effort, and to breathe while face-down at the surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ice diving</span> Underwater diving under ice

Ice diving is a type of penetration diving where the dive takes place under ice. Because diving under ice places the diver in an overhead environment typically with only a single entry/exit point, it requires special procedures and equipment. Ice diving is done for purposes of recreation, scientific research, public safety and other professional or commercial reasons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diving regulator</span> Mechanism that controls the pressure of a breathing gas supply for diving

A diving regulator or underwater diving regulator is a pressure regulator that controls the pressure of breathing gas for underwater diving. The most commonly recognised application is to reduce pressurized breathing gas to ambient pressure and deliver it to the diver, but there are also other types of gas pressure regulator used for diving applications. The gas may be air or one of a variety of specially blended breathing gases. The gas may be supplied from a scuba cylinder carried by the diver, in which case it is called a scuba regulator, or via a hose from a compressor or high-pressure storage cylinders at the surface in surface-supplied diving. A gas pressure regulator has one or more valves in series which reduce pressure from the source, and use the downstream pressure as feedback to control the delivered pressure, or the upstream pressure as feedback to prevent excessive flow rates, lowering the pressure at each stage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barotrauma</span> Injury caused by pressure

Barotrauma is physical damage to body tissues caused by a difference in pressure between a gas space inside, or in contact with, the body and the surrounding gas or liquid. The initial damage is usually due to over-stretching the tissues in tension or shear, either directly by an expansion of the gas in the closed space or by pressure difference hydrostatically transmitted through the tissue. Tissue rupture may be complicated by the introduction of gas into the local tissue or circulation through the initial trauma site, which can cause blockage of circulation at distant sites or interfere with the normal function of an organ by its presence. The term is usually applied when the gas volume involved already exists prior to decompression. Barotrauma can occur during both compression and decompression events.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Surface-supplied diving</span> Underwater diving breathing gas supplied from the surface

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diving helmet</span> Rigid head enclosure for underwater diving

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Full-face diving mask</span> Diving mask that covers the mouth as well as the eyes and nose

A full-face diving mask is a type of diving mask that seals the whole of the diver's face from the water and contains a mouthpiece, demand valve or constant flow gas supply that provides the diver with breathing gas. The full face mask has several functions: it lets the diver see clearly underwater, it provides the diver's face with some protection from cold and polluted water and from stings, such as from jellyfish or coral. It increases breathing security and provides a space for equipment that lets the diver communicate with the surface support team.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scuba diving</span> Swimming underwater, breathing gas carried by the diver

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Underwater vision</span> The ability to see objects underwater

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vintage scuba</span> Early model scuba equipment and the ongoing activity of diving with it

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snorkel (swimming)</span> Tube for breathing face down at the surface of the water

A snorkel is a device used for breathing atmospheric air when the wearer's head is face downwards in the water with the mouth and the nose submerged. It may be either a separate unit, or integrated into a swimming or diving mask. The integrated version is only suitable for surface snorkeling, while the separate device may also be used for underwater activities such as spearfishing, freediving, finswimming, underwater hockey, underwater rugby and for surface breathing while wearing scuba equipment. A standard snorkel is a curved tube with a shape usually resembling the letter "L" or "J", fitted with a mouthpiece at the lower end and made from plastic, synthetic elastomers, rubber, or light metal. The snorkel may have a loop or a clip to attach it to the head strap of the diving mask or swimming goggles, or may be tucked between the mask-strap and the head. Some snorkels are fitted with a float valve at the top to prevent flooding if the top opening is immersed, and some are fitted with a water trap and purge valve, intended for draining water from the tube.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diving equipment</span> Equipment used to facilitate underwater diving

Diving equipment, or underwater diving equipment, is equipment used by underwater divers to make diving activities possible, easier, safer and/or more comfortable. This may be equipment primarily intended for this purpose, or equipment intended for other purposes which is found to be suitable for diving use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scuba skills</span> The skills required to dive safely using a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus.

Scuba skills are skills required to dive safely using self-contained underwater breathing apparatus, known as a scuba set. Most of these skills are relevant to both open-circuit scuba and rebreather scuba, and many also apply to surface-supplied diving. Some scuba skills, which are critical to divers' safety, may require more practice than standard recreational training provides to achieve reliable competence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Surface-supplied diving equipment</span> Equipment used specifically for surface supplied diving

Surface-supplied diving equipment (SSDE) is the equipment required for surface-supplied diving. The essential aspect of surface-supplied diving is that breathing gas is supplied from the surface, either from a specialised diving compressor, high-pressure gas storage cylinders, or both. In commercial and military surface-supplied diving, a backup source of surface-supplied breathing gas should always be present in case the primary supply fails. The diver may also wear a bailout cylinder which can provide self-contained breathing gas in an emergency. Thus, the surface-supplied diver is less likely to have an "out-of-air" emergency than a scuba diver using a single gas supply, as there are normally two alternative breathing gas sources available. Surface-supplied diving equipment usually includes communication capability with the surface, which improves the safety and efficiency of the working diver.

Diving hazards are the agents or situations that pose a threat to the underwater diver or their equipment. Divers operate in an environment for which the human body is not well suited. They face special physical and health risks when they go underwater or use high pressure breathing gas. The consequences of diving incidents range from merely annoying to rapidly fatal, and the result often depends on the equipment, skill, response and fitness of the diver and diving team. The classes of hazards include the aquatic environment, the use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment, exposure to a pressurised environment and pressure changes, particularly pressure changes during descent and ascent, and breathing gases at high ambient pressure. Diving equipment other than breathing apparatus is usually reliable, but has been known to fail, and loss of buoyancy control or thermal protection can be a major burden which may lead to more serious problems. There are also hazards of the specific diving environment, and hazards related to access to and egress from the water, which vary from place to place, and may also vary with time. Hazards inherent in the diver include pre-existing physiological and psychological conditions and the personal behaviour and competence of the individual. For those pursuing other activities while diving, there are additional hazards of task loading, of the dive task and of special equipment associated with the task.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of underwater diving</span> List of articles related to underwater diving grouped by topical relevance

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to underwater diving:

Diving procedures are standardised methods of doing things that are commonly useful while diving that are known to work effectively and acceptably safely. Due to the inherent risks of the environment and the necessity to operate the equipment correctly, both under normal conditions and during incidents where failure to respond appropriately and quickly can have fatal consequences, a set of standard procedures are used in preparation of the equipment, preparation to dive, during the dive if all goes according to plan, after the dive, and in the event of a reasonably foreseeable contingency. Standard procedures are not necessarily the only courses of action that produce a satisfactory outcome, but they are generally those procedures that experiment and experience show to work well and reliably in response to given circumstances. All formal diver training is based on the learning of standard skills and procedures, and in many cases the over-learning of the skills until the procedures can be performed without hesitation even when distracting circumstances exist. Where reasonably practicable, checklists may be used to ensure that preparatory and maintenance procedures are carried out in the correct sequence and that no steps are inadvertently omitted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human factors in diving equipment design</span> Influence of the interaction between the user and the equipment on design

Human factors in diving equipment design are the influences of the interactions between the user and equipment in the design of diving equipment and diving support equipment. The underwater diver relies on various items of diving and support equipment to stay alive, healthy and reasonably comfortable and to perform planned tasks during a dive.

References

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  2. 1 2 NOAA Diving Program (U.S.) (28 Feb 2001). Joiner, James T. (ed.). NOAA Diving Manual, Diving for Science and Technology (4th ed.). Silver Spring, Maryland: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, National Undersea Research Program. ISBN   978-0-941332-70-5. CD-ROM prepared and distributed by the National Technical Information Service (NTIS)in partnership with NOAA and Best Publishing Company
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  7. 1 2 Sawatzky, David (1 November 2015). "Corrective Dive Masks". Columns, Diving Medicine. Diver magazine. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 NOAA Diving Program (U.S.) (December 1979). Miller, James W. (ed.). NOAA Diving Manual, Diving for Science and Technology (2nd ed.). Silver Spring, Maryland: US Department of Commerce: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Ocean Engineering.
  9. ↑ Butler, FK; Gurney, N (2001). "Orbital hemorrhage following face-mask barotrauma". Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine. 28 (1). Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society: 31–4. PMID   11732882. Archived from the original on July 23, 2009. Retrieved 2008-07-06.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  10. ↑ Specification for snorkels and face masks. Amendment Slip No. 1 to BS 4532:1969 Snorkels and face masks, 30 December 1977 (standard). London: British Standards Institution. 1969.
  11. ↑ GOST 20568-75. Маски резиновые для плавания под водой. Общие технические условие. Rubber masks for submarine swimming. General specifications. Retrieved on 8 March 2019 at pdf.standartgost.ru
  12. ↑ Deutsches Institut für Normung: DIN 7877: Tauch-Zubehör. Tauchbrillen. Sicherheitstechnische Anforderungen und Prüfung. Diving accessories for skin divers. Diver's masks. Requirements and testing, Berlin/Cologne: Beuth Verlag, 1980.
  13. ↑ Ireneusz Wasielewski/Instytut Przemysłu Gumowego STOMIL (Łódź) (1982) BN-82/8444-17.01. Gumowy sprzęt pływacki – Maski pływackie. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Normalizacyjne "Alfa". Document retrieved on 10 January 2020 at http://bc.pollub.pl/publication/2949.
  14. ↑ American National Standards Institute (1985). Underwater Safety. Recreational Skin and Scuba Diving. Lenses for Masks. ANSI Z87.11:1985 (standard). New York: American National Standards Institute.
  15. ↑ Austrian Standards Institute (1988). Tauchmasken (Tauchbrillen); Sicherheitstechnische Anforderungen, Prüfung, Normkennzeichnung. Diving accessories; divers' masks; safety requirements, testing, marking of conformity. ÖNORM S 4225 (standard). Vienna: Austrian Standards Institute.
  16. ↑ Diving mask潛水鏡. Bureau of Standards, Metrology and Inspection, Republic of China. CNS 12497. Preview available at https://www.cnsonline.com.tw
  17. ↑ Method of test for diving mask潛水鏡檢驗法. Bureau of Standards, Metrology and Inspection, Republic of China. CNS 12498. Preview available at https://www.cnsonline.com.tw
  18. ↑ Diving equipment. Diving mask. Requirements and test methods. London: British Standards Institution. 2015. BS EN 16805.
  19. ↑ Bennett QM (June 2008). "New thoughts on the correction of presbyopia for divers". Diving Hyperb Med. 38 (2): 163–4. PMID   22692711. Archived from the original on June 15, 2013. Retrieved 2013-04-19.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  20. ↑ Lonne, Torben. "Diving With Contact Lenses". Articles. DIVE.in. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hanekom, Paul; Truter, Pieter (February 2007). Diver Training Handbook (3rd ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Research Diving Unit, University of Cape Town.
  22. ↑ Roberts, Fred M. (1963). "2 Basic equipment". Basic Scuba: Self contained underwater breathing apparatus: Its operation, maintenance and use (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinholdt.
  23. 1 2 3 British Sub Aqua Club. Sport Diving. London: Stanley Paul. ISBN   0-09-163831-3.
  24. ↑ Nelson, Brenda (28 March 2017). "Tips for Preventing Mask Fog". PADI Blog. Professional Association of Diving Instructors. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
  25. ↑ Jack McKenney: "Up to our snorkels in masks", Skin Diver (June 1973), pp. 18-21.
  26. ↑ uwhberlin (2 February 2015). "Gear needed for underwater hockey". Underwater Hockey in Berlin. Retrieved 4 May 2017.
  27. ↑ "Discover What You Have Been Missing!". HydroOptix. 30 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
  28. ↑ "DataMask HUD". Oceanic Worldwide. 2007. Archived from the original on 2004-12-06. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
  29. ↑ "Fluid Goggles". Liquivision Products. 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-23.

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