Physical conditions that may pose a risk of injury
Ergonomic hazards are common and varied, but there are solutions to reduce these hazards and keep employees safe.
Ergonomic hazards are physical conditions that may pose a risk of injury to the musculoskeletal system due to poor ergonomics. These hazards include awkward or static postures, high forces, repetitive motion, or short intervals between activities. The risk of injury is often magnified when multiple factors are present.
Environmental, operational, or design factors can all negatively impact a worker or user; examples include whole-body or hand/arm vibration, poor lighting, or poorly designed tools, equipment, or workstations. Some of the common body regions where injuries may occur include:
Injuries in these and other parts of the body could result in musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), which may be called cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) or repetitive strain injuries (RSIs), and are estimated to account for about a third of all non-fatal injuries and illnesses and their associated costs.[1] Ergonomic hazards occur in both occupational and non-occupational settings such as workshops, building sites, offices, homes, schools, or public spaces and facilities. Finding ways to eliminate or reduce ergonomic hazards in any setting will ultimately reduce the risk of injury.
Causes
Awkward posture
Awkward posture is when the body deviates significantly from a natural position during work-related activities. Awkward posture reduces work efficiency due to unnecessary overexertion. When awkward posture is sustained for a long period of time, muscles and nerves may become pinched. Examples include twisting, reaching, pulling, lifting, bending, or any other posture that can cause pain when sustained for a prolonged period.[2]
Static posture
Static posture, or static loading, is when a person holds a consistent posture during the entirety of the time it takes to perform a task, which does not allow the body to relax. It is a problem because it can lead to muscle pain, fatigue, and joint issues, and increases the risk for musculoskeletal injuries. The degree of damage depends on the type and duration of posture, as well as the type of activity. Issues related to static posture among workers can be prevented by taking frequent breaks and stretching often.[3]
Contact stress
Contact stress occurs when some part of a worker's body—such as the knees, elbows, wrists, or fingers—touches or rubs up against a sharp, inflexible, or immobile surface repetitively or for a long period of time. The surface could be a workstation, ladder, floor, or handle of a bucket or tool.[4] Contact stress can also be created through pushing, gripping, pinching, pulling, and lifting objects that can place additional force on the body's joints. Increasing these forces requires additional muscle exertion, and places greater loads on joints and connective tissues which can cause fatigue and may contribute to musculoskeletal disorders when there is inadequate time for rest and recovery.[5]
High forces involved in some physical labors can injure muscles and joints. Overexertion can occur when an external or muscular force exceeds the force the body can safely endure. The force might come in the form of gripping, pinching, pushing, pulling, and lifting objects.[7]
Elimination is the practice of removing a hazard from the work operation so there is no longer risk of harm.[9] This is the most effective solution. For ergonomic hazards, this could involve:
Redesigning the work area to remove the need for prolonged reaching, bending, or maintaining awkward postures.
Providing carts, dollies, or jacks to move heavy items so they do not have to be lifted.[10]
Substitution is the practice of replacing the current hazard with one that is not as harmful.[9] For ergonomic hazards, this could involve:
Replacing heavy materials with lighter alternatives.
Replacing a low-quality chair or equipment with higher-quality, softer, or padded materials.[11]
Engineering control is the practice of physically separating a hazard from the worker.[9] For ergonomic hazards, this could involve:
Designing frequently lifted items to have easily gripped handles.
Providing adjustable chairs, tables, stools, or workstations that can be fitted to a specific worker's height.[10]
Administrative controls are policies and regulations in the workplace that help prevent a hazard.[9] For ergonomic hazards, this could involve:
Rotating workers between tasks so people are not using the same muscle groups for an extended period of time.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) controls are typically items a worker wears to protest them from a hazard.[9] For ergonomic hazards, this could include:
Diagram of good ergonomic practices in an office setting (in German)
Ergonomics tries to fit the job to the worker, not the worker to the job.[8] Whenever there is a worker and a job, there will be ergonomic considerations. Commonly, ergonomic issues can arise in an office setting.[12][13] Many people who work in an office (either a home office or a formal office building) often spend hours sitting and working in the same position. Ergonomic considerations include chair and computer monitor height adjustment, lighting position, break frequency, and chair design.[12]
Manufacturing ergonomics
Those working in manufacturing settings are prone to repetitive actions, awkward postures, high forces, and prolonged exposure to vibrations from equipment and tools.[14] These exposures can result in increased rates of musculoskeletal disorders and cumulative trauma disorders.[14] Specific risk factors include physical activities (pushing, pulling, lifting, and carrying), bending and reaching for loads, twisting the body, and other high-intensity and energy-exerting tasks.[14]
A portable platform is used to transport items, eliminating the need for lifting.
It is important to manage ergonomic risk factors and reduce employee exposure to those risk factors. Effective ergonomics practices can improve employee health, increase productivity, increase manufacturing quality, decrease cost, improve profitability, and create and grow a better, healthier team of employees.[15]
The following tips and practices[14] can be implemented by employees and company management alike to help improve ergonomics in the manufacturing setting.
Awkward posture
Workstations should be kept at an appropriate height for the employee, based on their needs and the task being performed. The work surface should be at an appropriate height, with commonly used items within easy reach to prevent the need for reaching and awkward stretching.[14] Stools or chairs should be provided when appropriate for tasks to reduce the time employees need to stand.[14] Knee pads should be provided to prevent the need to squat if work needs to be done on the ground.[14]
Static posture
Assembly line workers who stand for the duration of a shift may experience negative effects over time. Switching tasks, taking breaks, or providing the option to sit can help reduce static postures.
Contact stress
Using lifting aids can reduce or eliminate the force placed on the employee's body during lifting tasks.[14] Using carts, conveyors, or automated guided vehicles (AGVs) can help employees manage and carry heavy loads better, or even automate the lifting and carrying process.[14]
When transporting heavy loads, try to push the load rather than pull. Pushing uses the body's stronger back and leg muscles.[14] Ensure that the wheels on a cart or transporting device are appropriate for the surface on which it will be moved, as well as the materials it will be moving. Make sure preventative maintenance is performed on carts and moving equipment so they can continue to be used properly.[14]
Repetitive motion
Using, and training employees on how to use, proper lifting techniques can ease the burden of awkward lifting postures. Lifting by bending at the hips and knees, and lifting within the "lifting safety zone" (between the elbows and knuckles), can reduce forces on parts of the body while lifting.[14]
High force
High forces in the manufacturing industry can come from the lifting of products from one point to the other. Prolonged exposure can be problematic, as it increases stress and fatigue on the muscles and joints, which over time causes pain and discomfort.
Construction ergonomics
Workers in the construction industry can be exposed to many ergonomic hazards.
Construction work can involve floor and ground-level work, overhead work, hand-intensive work, and lifting, holding, and handling materials.[16] It is reported that back injuries in US construction were 50% higher than the average for all other US industries.[16] Construction workers often experience backaches and pain in the shoulders, neck, arms, and hands; these symptoms often lead to musculoskeletal disorders and can cause health complications. Employees have an increased risk of these injuries and health conditions if they often carry heavy loads, work on their knees, twist their hands or wrists, stretch to work overhead, use certain types of tools, or use vibrating tools or equipment.[16]
This industry, among others, has added pressure from tight deadlines, which creates a fast-paced work environment that often results in little attention being paid to ergonomic factors.
Awkward posture
For some construction jobs, stooping or kneeling is required for tasks like finishing slabs, decks, or floor coverings. Bending, stooping, kneeling, or squatting can cause pain or discomfort in the employee's back or knees.[16] Not only can these activities cause pain and discomfort, but these physical positions can limit other job activities such as lifting, pushing, or pulling weights without substantial body stress.[16] Potential solutions for common ergonomic hazards include:[16]
raising the work off the floor and onto a worksurface closer to the worker;
using tools with extension handles to allow an employee to work standing up, eliminating the need to stoop and kneel;
for tasks in which kneeling is required, using a device called a 'kneeling creeper', which provides chest support during the task.
Working overhead is often required of construction employees. Drilling, driving fasteners, or finishing drywall are all tasks that entail overhead work. This positioning can put stress on the neck and shoulders, and can reduce the ability for the employee to work safely.[16] Using lifts or hoists would help the employee become closer to the work surface to reduce the frequency and intensity of lifting materials overhead. Attaching extension shafts for drills can help eliminate the need to reach overhead at all, and could help protect the employee from overhead ergonomic complications. Another solution could be to use an extension pole for tools.[16] An extension pole is a fixed height pole attached to a powder-actuated tool, meaning the tool is out of the employee's hands, but they are still able to operate it.[16]
Static posture
Static posture in construction is rare due to the active nature of the work. One exception is in the office setting where planning is done.
Contact stress
Many tasks on construction sites involve lifting, holding, and handling materials. This lifting and holding can strain the lower back, shoulders, neck, arms, hands, and wrists.[16] Many tools used today are mechanical, but some tasks still need to be done manually.[16] Using a power vacuum to lift large, lighter items (such as a pane of glass) can remove the need to lift items manually and can take most, if not all, of the strain off of the employee's body. Receiving proper lifting training can also help prevent complications from lifting materials.
not reaching beyond 10in (25cm) away from the body when lifting or setting items down;
not twisting the body;
lifting from the legs and not the back;
lifting items with two hands, instead of one.
Using substitution can help with lifting materials as well. Some construction materials are very dense and heavy; substituting these materials for lighter materials (such as lightweight concrete blocks) can help reduce body strain during work and lifting tasks.[16] Using skid plates under a concrete-filled hose can help move the hose easily, thus helping the worker avoid bending and awkward postures.[16]
Repetitive motion
Fine motor skills are also needed in construction. Repeatedly performing these tasks can cause injuries such as tendinitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, trigger finger, epicondylitis, and hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS).[16] Vibrations from power tools can cause injuries and long-term health effects. Using reduced vibration power tools—or anti-vibration gloves—can help reduce health effects from tool vibrations. Substitute tools that do not fit the employee with more ergonomic tools.[16] Take into consideration the handle, wrist position, handle diameter, and if the tool is spring-loaded.[16] Automated tools (such as power caulking guns) can help reduce the strain of performing a repetitive task.
Most work in the construction industry requires a certain amount of high force to move or lift heavy objects. High forces in construction can also be seen in the pushing, pulling, and gripping of tools. All these can lead to some ergonomic issues that might affect the work.
Migrant farm worker/ Agriculture ergonomics
Migrant farmworkers engage in various types of manual labor within the crop production sector that can lead to work-related musculoskeletal disorders.[17][18] WMSDs may include back, neck, shoulder, arm, hand, wrist, elbow, knee, hip, ankle, and foot injuries among farmworkers.[18][19] These can also result in sprains, strains, carpel tunnel syndrome, pain, sensitivity, swelling and soreness.[19][20] Poor ergonomics can lead to increased risk for WMSDs, long-term pain, reduced productivity and work ability among farmworkers.[19][20]
Awkward posture
Some farmworker jobs require bending, stooping, squatting, and kneeling to pick fruit and vegetables when working in fields and orchards. Working in these setting may also prompt the use of ladders to pick fruits from trees and require farmworkers to work with their arms above shoulder level.[18]
Static posture
In warehouses, farmworker tasks can include standing for hours at packing lines sorting out expired produce and packing produce into boxes. Offering tall chairs that allow work at the level of packing lines can help alleviate some physical stress of standing for the duration of a shift.[18]
Repetitive motion
The nature of farm work may require the same motion to execute tasks such as sorting produce, stooping, squatting, and bending to pick produce.[20] Using specific tools and offering trainings to farmworkers can help reduce the risk of nerve damage.[20]
High forces
High forces in the agriculture industry can come from lifting heavy boxes, equipment, and harvest sacks.
Related Research Articles
A repetitive strain injury (RSI) is an injury to part of the musculoskeletal or nervous system caused by repetitive use, vibrations, compression or long periods in a fixed position. Other common names include repetitive stress injury, repetitive stress disorders, cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs), and overuse syndrome.
A pipette is a type of laboratory tool commonly used in chemistry and biology to transport a measured volume of liquid, often as a media dispenser. Pipettes come in several designs for various purposes with differing levels of accuracy and precision, from single piece glass pipettes to more complex adjustable or electronic pipettes. Many pipette types work by creating a partial vacuum above the liquid-holding chamber and selectively releasing this vacuum to draw up and dispense liquid. Measurement accuracy varies greatly depending on the instrument.
A waste collector, also known as a garbageman, garbage collector, trashman, binman or dustman, is a person employed by a public or private enterprise to collect and dispose of municipal solid waste (refuse) and recyclables from residential, commercial, industrial or other collection sites for further processing and waste disposal. Specialised waste collection vehicles featuring an array of automated functions are often deployed to assist waste collectors in reducing collection and transport time and for protection from exposure. Waste and recycling pickup work is physically demanding and usually exposes workers to an occupational hazard.
An ergonomic keyboard is a computer keyboard designed with ergonomic considerations to minimize muscle strain, fatigue, and other problems.
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are injuries or pain in the human musculoskeletal system, including the joints, ligaments, muscles, nerves, tendons, and structures that support limbs, neck and back. MSDs can arise from a sudden exertion, or they can arise from making the same motions repeatedly repetitive strain, or from repeated exposure to force, vibration, or awkward posture. Injuries and pain in the musculoskeletal system caused by acute traumatic events like a car accident or fall are not considered musculoskeletal disorders. MSDs can affect many different parts of the body including upper and lower back, neck, shoulders and extremities. Examples of MSDs include carpal tunnel syndrome, epicondylitis, tendinitis, back pain, tension neck syndrome, and hand-arm vibration syndrome.
Manual handling of loads (MHL) or manual material handling (MMH) involves the use of the human body to lift, lower, carry or transfer loads. The average person is exposed to manual lifting of loads in the work place, in recreational atmospheres, and even in the home. To properly protect one from injuring themselves, it can help to understand general body mechanics.
A job safety analysis (JSA) is a procedure that helps integrate accepted safety and health principles and practices into a particular task or job operation. The goal of a JSA is to identify potential hazards of a specific role and recommend procedures to control or prevent these hazards. Other terms often used to describe this procedure are Job Hazard Analysis (JHA), Hazardous Task Analysis (HTA) and Job Hazard Breakdown.
Active sitting is the practice of enabling or encouraging individuals to engage in physical activity while seated. It is also commonly known as dynamic sitting. The underlying notion highlights the advantages of incorporating flexibility and movement while sitting, as it can positively impact the human body and allow the completion of certain tasks that require sitting. "Active sitting, consisting of modified chairs or stability balls, allows the body to stay dynamic while seated." One of the earliest forms of active sitting is the common rocking chair which allows forward and backward swaying motion.
The complications of prolonged standing are conditions that may arise after standing, walking, or running for prolonged periods. Many of the complications come from prolonged standing that is repeated several times a week. Many jobs require prolonged standing, such as "retail staff, baristas, bartenders, assembly line workers, security staff, engineers, catering staff, library assistants, hair stylists and laboratory technicians". The basic physiological change that occurs in the body during prolonged standing or sudden stand from supine position is that there will be increased pooling of blood in the legs. This decreases the venous return, and so there will be decreased cardiac output, which ultimately causes systolic blood pressure to fall (hypotension). This hypotension may lead the subject to faint or to have other symptoms of hypotension. Standing requires about 10% more energy than sitting.
Material handling involves short-distance movement within the confines of a building or between a building and a transportation vehicle. It uses a wide range of manual, semi-automated, and automated equipment and includes consideration of the protection, storage, and control of materials throughout their manufacturing, warehousing, distribution, consumption, and disposal. Material handling can be used to create time and place utility through the handling, storage, and control of waste, as distinct from manufacturing, which creates form utility by changing the shape, form, and makeup of material.
Musculoskeletal injury refers to damage of muscular or skeletal systems, which is usually due to a strenuous activity and includes damage to skeletal muscles, bones, tendons, joints, ligaments, and other affected soft tissues. In one study, roughly 25% of approximately 6300 adults received a musculoskeletal injury of some sort within 12 months—of which 83% were activity-related. Musculoskeletal injury spans into a large variety of medical specialties including orthopedic surgery, sports medicine, emergency medicine and rheumatology.
Computer-aided ergonomics is an engineering discipline using computers to solve complex ergonomic problems involving interaction between the human body and its environment. The human body holds a great complexity thus it can be beneficial to use computers to solve problems involving the human body and the environment that surrounds it.
A physical hazard is an agent, factor or circumstance that can cause harm with contact. They can be classified as type of occupational hazard or environmental hazard. Physical hazards include ergonomic hazards, radiation, heat and cold stress, vibration hazards, and noise hazards. Engineering controls are often used to mitigate physical hazards.
Following Maurice de Montmollin, the French distinguished generally two major trends in ergonomics:
Human factors and ergonomics is the application of psychological and physiological principles to the engineering and design of products, processes, and systems. Primary goals of human factors engineering are to reduce human error, increase productivity and system availability, and enhance safety, health and comfort with a specific focus on the interaction between the human and equipment.
Agricultural safety and health is an aspect of occupational safety and health in the agricultural workplace. It specifically addresses the health and safety of farmers, farm workers, and their families.
Engineering controls are strategies designed to protect workers from hazardous conditions by placing a barrier between the worker and the hazard or by removing a hazardous substance through air ventilation. Engineering controls involve a physical change to the workplace itself, rather than relying on workers' behavior or requiring workers to wear protective clothing.
Manual material handling (MMH) work contributes to a large percentage of the over half a million cases of musculoskeletal disorders reported annually in the United States. Musculoskeletal disorders often involve strains and sprains to the lower back, shoulders, and upper limbs. They can result in protracted pain, disability, medical treatment, and financial stress for those afflicted with them, and employers often fi nd themselves paying the bill, either directly or through workers’ compensation insurance, at the same time they must cope with the loss of the full capacity of their workers.
The impact of artificial intelligence on workers includes both applications to improve worker safety and health, and potential hazards that must be controlled.
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