Environmental disease

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In epidemiology, environmental diseases are diseases that can be directly attributed to environmental factors (as distinct from genetic factors or infection). Apart from the true monogenic genetic disorders, which are rare, environment is a major determinant of the development of disease. Diet, exposure to toxins, pathogens, radiation, and chemicals found in almost all personal care products and household cleaners, stress, racism, and physical and mental abuse are causes of a large segment of non-hereditary disease. If a disease process is concluded to be the result of a combination of genetic and environmental factor influences, its etiological origin can be referred to as having a multifactorial pattern.

Contents

There are many different types of environmental disease including: [1]

Environmental diseases are a direct result from the environment. Meanwhile, pollution-related diseases are attributed to exposure to toxicants or toxins in the air, water, and soil. Therefore, all pollution-related disease are environmental diseases, but not all environmental diseases are pollution-related diseases. [2]

Urban Associated Diseases

Urban areas are highly dense regions that currently hold ~50% of the global population, a number expected to grow to 70% by 2050, [3] and produce over 80% of the global GDP. [4] These areas are known to have a higher incidence of certain diseases, which is of particular concern given their rapid growth. The urban environment includes many risk factors for a variety of different environmental diseases. Some of these risk factors, for instance, air-pollution, are well known, while others such as altered microbial exposure are less familiar to the general public. For instance, asthma can be induced and exacerbated by combustion related pollution, which is more prevalent in urban areas. [5] On the other hand, urban areas, compared to their rural counterparts, lack diverse microbial communities, which can help prevent the development of asthma. [6] Both of these effects lead to a higher incidence of asthma in cities. Infectious diseases are also often more common in cities, as transfer between hosts is facilitated by high population densities. However, recent research shows that increased access to healthcare weakens the urban association with these diseases, [7] and the net effect is still unclear. Many mental health disorders have also been associated with urban areas, especially in low socioeconomic areas. [8] Increased levels of stress, air & light & noise pollution, and reduced "green" space are all urban-associated environmental effects that are adversely linked to mental health. [3] Though urban areas are often correlated with dirtiness and disease, they are likely to have more access to higher quality health care which can lead to more positive health outcomes. This benefit will continue to grow as innovation in health technologies steadily rises. Taking this into account, while overall trends do exist, it is important to note that urban risk factors are nuanced and often city and context dependent. [3]

Chemicals

Metals

Poisoning by lead and mercury has been known since antiquity. Other toxic metals or metals that are known to evoke adverse immune reactions are arsenic, phosphorus, zinc, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, manganese, nickel, cobalt, osmium, platinum, [9] selenium, tellurium, thallium, uranium, and vanadium.

Halogens

There are many other diseases likely to have been caused by common anions found in natural drinking water. Fluoride is one of the most common found in drier climates where the geology favors release of fluoride ions to soil as the rocks decompose. In Sri Lanka, 90% of the country is underlain by crystalline metamorphic rocks of which most carry mica as a major mineral. Mica carries fluoride in their structure and releases to soil when decomposes. In the dry and arid climates, fluoride concentrates on top soil and slowly dissolves in shallow groundwater. This has been the cause of high fluoride levels in drinking water where the majority of the rural Sri Lankans obtain their drinking water from backyard wells. High fluoride in drinking water has caused a high incidence of fluorosis among dry zone population in Sri Lanka. However, in the wet zone, high rainfall effectively removes fluoride from soils where no fluorosis is evident. In some parts of Sri Lanka iodine deficiency has also been noted which has been identified as a result of iodine fixation by hydrated iron oxide found in lateritic soils in wet coastal lowlands. [10]

Organic compounds

Additionally, there are environmental diseases caused by the aromatic carbon compounds including : benzene, hexachlorocyclohexane, toluene diisocyanate, phenol, pentachlorophenol, quinone and hydroquinone.[ citation needed ]

Also included are the aromatic nitro-, amino-, and pyridilium-deratives: nitrobenzene, dinitrobenzene, trinitrotoluene, paramethylaminophenol sulfate (Metol), dinitro-ortho-cresol, aniline, trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (tetryl), hexanitrodiphenylamine (aurantia), phenylenediamines, and paraquat. [11]

The aliphatic carbon compounds can also cause environmental disease. Included in these are methanol, nitroglycerine, nitrocellulose, dimethylnitrosamine, and the halogenated hydrocarbons: methyl chloride, methyl bromide, trichloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, and the chlorinated naphthalenes. Also included are glycols: ethylene chlorhydrin and diethylene dioxide [12]

Noxious gases

Noxious gases can be categorized as : Simple asphyxiants, chemical asphyxiants, and irritant gases. The simple asphixiants are nitrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide. The chemical asphyxiants are carbon monoxide, sulfuretted hydrogen and hydrogen cyanide. [13]

The irritant gases are sulfur dioxide, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide, chlorine, phosgene, and fluorine and its compounds, which include luroine and hydrofluoric acid, fluorspar, fluorapatite, cryolite, and organic fluorine compounds. [14]

Categorization and surveillance

The U.S. Coast Guard has developed a Coast Guard-wide comprehensive system for surveillance of workplace diseases. [15]

The American Medical Association's fifth edition of the Current Medical Information and Terminology (CMIT) was used as a reference to expand the basic list of 50 Sentinel Health Events (Occupational) [SHE(O)] published by the National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH), September, 1983. [16]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pollution</span> Introduction of contaminants that cause adverse change

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of any substance or energy. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Isocyanate</span> Chemical group (–N=C=O)

In organic chemistry, isocyanate is the functional group with the formula R−N=C=O. Organic compounds that contain an isocyanate group are referred to as isocyanates. An organic compound with two isocyanate groups is known as a diisocyanate. Diisocyanates are manufactured for the production of polyurethanes, a class of polymers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indoor air quality</span> Air quality within and around buildings and structures

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is the air quality within and around buildings and structures. IAQ is known to affect the health, comfort, and well-being of building occupants. Poor indoor air quality has been linked to sick building syndrome, reduced productivity, and impaired learning in schools. Common pollutants of indoor air include: secondhand tobacco smoke, air pollutants from indoor combustion, radon, molds and other allergens, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, legionella and other bacteria, asbestos fibers, carbon dioxide, ozone and particulates. Source control, filtration, and the use of ventilation to dilute contaminants are the primary methods for improving indoor air quality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nitrogen dioxide</span> Chemical compound with formula NO₂

Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2 and is one of several nitrogen oxides. NO2 is an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of nitric acid, millions of tons of which are produced each year for use (primarily in the production of fertilizers). At higher temperatures, nitrogen dioxide is a reddish-brown gas. It can be fatal if inhaled in large quantities. The LC50 (median lethal dose) for humans has been estimated to be 174 ppm for a 1-hour exposure. Nitrogen dioxide is a paramagnetic, bent molecule with C2v point group symmetry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental health</span> Public health branch focused on environmental impacts on human health

Environmental health is the branch of public health concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment affecting human health. In order to effectively control factors that may affect health, the requirements that must be met in order to create a healthy environment must be determined. The major sub-disciplines of environmental health are environmental science, toxicology, environmental epidemiology, and environmental and occupational medicine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sick building syndrome</span> Symptoms of illness attributed to a building

Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a condition in which people develop symptoms of illness or become infected with chronic disease from the building in which they work or reside.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon</span> Hydrocarbon composed of multiple aromatic rings

A polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) is a class of organic compounds that is composed of multiple aromatic rings. The simplest representative is naphthalene, having two aromatic rings, and the three-ring compounds anthracene and phenanthrene. PAHs are uncharged, non-polar and planar. Many are colorless. Many of them are found in coal and in oil deposits, and are also produced by the incomplete combustion of organic matter—for example, in engines and incinerators or when biomass burns in forest fires.

An occupational disease or industrial disease is any chronic ailment that occurs as a result of work or occupational activity. It is an aspect of occupational safety and health. An occupational disease is typically identified when it is shown that it is more prevalent in a given body of workers than in the general population, or in other worker populations. The first such disease to be recognised, squamous-cell carcinoma of the scrotum, was identified in chimney sweep boys by Sir Percival Pott in 1775. Occupational hazards that are of a traumatic nature are not considered to be occupational diseases.

Environmental toxicants and fetal development is the impact of different toxic substances from the environment on the development of the fetus. This article deals with potential adverse effects of environmental toxicants on the prenatal development of both the embryo or fetus, as well as pregnancy complications. The human embryo or fetus is relatively susceptible to impact from adverse conditions within the mother's environment. Substandard fetal conditions often cause various degrees of developmental delays, both physical and mental, for the growing baby. Although some variables do occur as a result of genetic conditions pertaining to the father, a great many are directly brought about from environmental toxins that the mother is exposed to.

Occupational lung diseases comprise a broad group of diseases, including occupational asthma, industrial bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchiolitis obliterans, inhalation injury, interstitial lung diseases, infections, lung cancer and mesothelioma. These can be caused directly or due to immunological response to an exposure to a variety of dusts, chemicals, proteins or organisms. Occupational cases of interstitial lung disease may be misdiagnosed as COPD, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, or a myriad of other diseases; leading to a delay in identification of the causative agent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Disease burden</span> Impact of diseases

Disease burden is the impact of a health problem as measured by financial cost, mortality, morbidity, or other indicators. It is often quantified in terms of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) or disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). Both of these metrics quantify the number of years lost due to disability (YLDs), sometimes also known as years lost due to disease or years lived with disability/disease. One DALY can be thought of as one year of healthy life lost, and the overall disease burden can be thought of as a measure of the gap between current health status and the ideal health status. According to an article published in The Lancet in June 2015, low back pain and major depressive disorder were among the top ten causes of YLDs and were the cause of more health loss than diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and asthma combined. The study based on data from 188 countries, considered to be the largest and most detailed analysis to quantify levels, patterns, and trends in ill health and disability, concluded that "the proportion of disability-adjusted life years due to YLDs increased globally from 21.1% in 1990 to 31.2% in 2013." The environmental burden of disease is defined as the number of DALYs that can be attributed to environmental factors. Similarly, the work-related burden of disease is defined as the number of deaths and DALYs that can be attributed to occupational risk factors to human health. These measures allow for comparison of disease burdens, and have also been used to forecast the possible impacts of health interventions. By 2014, DALYs per head were "40% higher in low-income and middle-income regions."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Air pollution</span> Presence of dangerous substances in the atmosphere

Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. It is also the contamination of indoor or outdoor surrounding either by chemical activities, physical or biological agents that alters the natural features of the atmosphere. There are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases, particulates, and biological molecules. Air pollution can cause diseases, allergies, and even death to humans; it can also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and crops, and may damage the natural environment or built environment. Air pollution can be caused by both human activities and natural phenomena.

Occupational asthma is new onset asthma or the recurrence of previously quiescent asthma directly caused by exposure to an agent at workplace. It is an occupational lung disease and a type of work-related asthma. Agents that can induce occupational asthma can be grouped into sensitizers and irritants.

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials into the atmosphere, causing harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damaging ecosystems. Air pollution can cause health problems including, but not limited to, infections, behavioral changes, cancer, organ failure, and premature death. These health effects are not equally distributed across the U.S population; there are demographic disparities by race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and education. Air pollution can derive from natural sources, or anthropogenic sources. Anthropogenic air pollution has affected the United States since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pathophysiology of asthma</span> Medical condition

Asthma is a common pulmonary condition defined by chronic inflammation of respiratory tubes, tightening of respiratory smooth muscle, and episodes of bronchoconstriction. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that 1 in 11 children and 1 in 12 adults have asthma in the United States of America. According to the World Health Organization, asthma affects 235 million people worldwide. There are two major categories of asthma: allergic and non-allergic. The focus of this article will be allergic asthma. In both cases, bronchoconstriction is prominent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of the petroleum industry</span>

The environmental impact of the petroleum industry is extensive and expansive due to petroleum having many uses. Crude oil and natural gas are primary energy and raw material sources that enable numerous aspects of modern daily life and the world economy. Their supply has grown quickly over the last 150 years to meet the demands of the rapidly increasing human population, creativity, knowledge, and consumerism.

In the United States about 10% of the population, 33 million people, live within 900 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day, which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants. Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma, lung and heart disease, and cancer among others. Car pollutants include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations, they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses. The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the adult.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nitrogen dioxide poisoning</span> Medical condition

Nitrogen dioxide poisoning is the illness resulting from the toxic effect of nitrogen dioxide. It usually occurs after the inhalation of the gas beyond the threshold limit value. Nitrogen dioxide is reddish-brown with a very harsh smell at high concentrations, at lower concentrations it is colorless but may still have a harsh odour. Nitrogen dioxide poisoning depends on the duration, frequency, and intensity of exposure.

Environmental health policy is governmental action intended to prevent exposure to environmental hazards or "eliminate the effects of exposure to environmental hazards".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asthma trigger</span>

Asthma triggers are factors or stimuli that provoke the exacerbation of asthma symptoms or increase the degree of airflow disruption, which can lead to an asthma attack. An asthma attack is characterized by an obstruction of the airway, hypersecretion of mucus and bronchoconstriction due to the contraction of smooth muscles around the respiratory tract. Its symptoms include a wide range of manifestations such as breathlessness, coughing, a tight chest and wheezing.

References

  1. ↑ Miller, Joe; Levine, Joe (2010-02-01). Biology. Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN   9780133685190.
  2. ↑ "Environmental pollution and the global burden of disease". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
  3. 1 2 3 Flies, Emily J.; Mavoa, Suzanne; Zosky, Graeme R.; Mantzioris, Evangeline; Williams, Craig; Eri, Rajaraman; Brook, Barry W.; Buettel, Jessie C. (2019-12-01). "Urban-associated diseases: Candidate diseases, environmental risk factors, and a path forward". Environment International. 133 (Pt A): 105187. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.105187 . ISSN   0160-4120. PMID   31648161.
  4. ↑ "Overview". World Bank. Retrieved 2020-11-26.
  5. ↑ Guarnieri, Michael; Balmes, John R (2014-05-03). "Outdoor air pollution and asthma". The Lancet. 383 (9928): 1581–1592. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60617-6. ISSN   0140-6736. PMC   4465283 . PMID   24792855.
  6. ↑ Stein, Michelle M.; Hrusch, Cara L.; Gozdz, Justyna; Igartua, Catherine; Pivniouk, Vadim; Murray, Sean E.; Ledford, Julie G.; Marques dos Santos, Mauricius; Anderson, Rebecca L.; Metwali, Nervana; Neilson, Julia W. (2016-08-04). "Innate Immunity and Asthma Risk in Amish and Hutterite Farm Children". New England Journal of Medicine. 375 (5): 411–421. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1508749. ISSN   0028-4793. PMC   5137793 . PMID   27518660.
  7. ↑ Cooke, Graham S; Andrieux-Meyer, Isabelle; Applegate, Tanya L; Atun, Rifat; Burry, Jessica R; Cheinquer, Hugo; Dusheiko, Geoff; Feld, Jordan J; Gore, Charles; Griswold, Max G; Hamid, Saeed (2019-02-01). "Accelerating the elimination of viral hepatitis: a Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology Commission". The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 4 (2): 135–184. doi:10.1016/S2468-1253(18)30270-X. ISSN   2468-1253. PMID   30647010. S2CID   58663099.
  8. ↑ Peen, J.; Schoevers, R. A.; Beekman, A. T.; Dekker, J. (2010). "The current status of urban-rural differences in psychiatric disorders". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 121 (2): 84–93. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01438.x. ISSN   1600-0447. PMID   19624573. S2CID   15917409.
  9. ↑ McWhinney, S. R.; Goldberg, R. M.; McLeod, H. L. (2009). "Platinum Neurotoxicity Pharmacogenetics". Molecular Cancer Therapeutics. 8 (1): 10–16. doi:10.1158/1535-7163.MCT-08-0840. PMC   2651829 . PMID   19139108.
  10. ↑ "laterites: Topics by WorldWideScience.org". worldwidescience.org. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
  11. ↑ Buffler, Patricia A.; Crane, Martin; Key, Marcus M. (1985). "Possibilities of Detecting Health Effects by Studies of Populations Exposed to Chemicals from Waste Disposal Sites". Environmental Health Perspectives. 62: 423–456. doi:10.2307/3430147. ISSN   0091-6765.
  12. ↑ Humans, IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to (2012), "ETHYLENE OXIDE", Chemical Agents and Related Occupations, International Agency for Research on Cancer, retrieved 2023-10-20
  13. ↑ Borron, Stephen W.; Bebarta, Vikhyat S. (February 2015). "Asphyxiants". Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America. 33 (1): 89–115. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2014.09.014. ISSN   1558-0539. PMID   25455664.
  14. ↑ "Guide to Chemicals". www.iloencyclopaedia.org. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
  15. ↑ Stockwell, J. R.; Adess, M. L.; Titlow, T. B.; Zaharias, G. R. (August 1991). "Use of sentinel health events (occupational) in computer assisted occupational health surveillance". Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine. 62 (8): 795–797. ISSN   0095-6562. PMID   1930064.
  16. ↑ Rutstein, D D; Mullan, R J; Frazier, T M; Halperin, W E; Melius, J M; Sestito, J P (September 1983). "Sentinel Health Events (occupational): a basis for physician recognition and public health surveillance". American Journal of Public Health. 73 (9): 1054–1062. ISSN   0090-0036. PMC   1651048 . PMID   6881402.

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