Hazardous waste

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North Seattle household hazardous waste collection facility. North Seattle Household Hazardous Waste Collection Facility 01.jpg
North Seattle household hazardous waste collection facility.

Hazardous waste is waste that must be handled properly to avoid damaging human health or the environment. Waste can be hazardous because it is toxic, reacts violently with other chemicals, or is corrosive, among other traits. [1] As of 2022, humanity produces 300-500 million metric tons of hazardous waste annually. [2] Some common examples are electronics, batteries, and paints. An important aspect of managing hazardous waste is safe disposal. Hazardous waste can be stored in hazardous waste landfills, burned, or recycled into something new. Managing hazardous waste is important to achieve worldwide sustainability. [3] Hazardous waste is regulated on national scale by national governments as well as on an international scale by the United Nations (UN) and international treaties.

Contents

Types

Universal wastes

Universal wastes are a special category of hazardous wastes that (in the U.S.) generally pose a lower threat relative to other hazardous wastes, are ubiquitous and produced in very large quantities by a large number of generators. Some of the most common "universal wastes" are: fluorescent light bulbs, some specialty batteries (e.g. lithium or lead containing batteries), cathode-ray tubes, and mercury-containing devices.

Universal wastes are subject to somewhat less stringent regulatory requirements. Small quantity generators of universal wastes may be classified as "conditionally exempt small quantity generators" (CESQGs) which release them from some of the regulatory requirements for the handling and storage hazardous wastes. Universal wastes must still be disposed of properly.

Household Hazardous Waste

Household Hazardous Waste separated for proper disposal December 3, 2012 - Household Hazardous Waste separated for proper disposal (8268772840).jpg
Household Hazardous Waste separated for proper disposal
Large debris pile near to EPA's 'Household Hazardous Waste' collection PAD December 3, 2012 - Large debris pile near to EPA's 'Household Hazardous Waste' collection PAD (8267709723).jpg
Large debris pile near to EPA's 'Household Hazardous Waste' collection PAD

Household Hazardous Waste (HHW), also referred to as domestic hazardous waste or home generated special materials, is a waste that is generated from residential households. HHW only applies to waste coming from the use of materials that are labeled for and sold for "home use". Waste generated by a company or at an industrial setting is not HHW.

The following list includes categories often applied to HHW. It is important to note that many of these categories overlap and that many household wastes can fall into multiple categories:

Disposal

Historically, some hazardous wastes were disposed of in regular landfills. Hazardous wastes must often be stabilized and solidified in order to enter a landfill and must undergo different treatments in order to stabilize and dispose of them. Most flammable materials can be recycled into industrial fuel. Some materials with hazardous constituents can be recycled, such as lead acid batteries. Many landfills require countermeasures against groundwater contamination. For example, a barrier has to be installed along the foundation of the landfill to contain the hazardous substances that may remain in the disposed waste. [5]

Recycling

Some hazardous wastes can be recycled into new products. [6] Examples may include lead–acid batteries or electronic circuit boards. When heavy metals in these types of ashes go through the proper treatment, they could bind to other pollutants and convert them into easier-to-dispose solids, or they could be used as pavement filling. Such treatments reduce the level of threat of harmful chemicals, like fly and bottom ash, [7] while also recycling the safe product.

Incineration

Incinerators burn hazardous waste at high temperatures (1600°-2500°F, 870°-1400°C), greatly reducing its amount by decomposing it into ash and gases. [8] Incineration works with many types of hazardous waste, including contaminated soil, sludge, liquids, and gases. An incinerator can be built directly at a hazardous waste site, or more commonly, waste can be transported from a site to a permanent incineration facility. [8]

The ash and gases leftover from incineration can also be hazardous. Metals are not destroyed, and can either remain in the furnace or convert to gas and join the gas emissions. The ash needs to be stored in a hazardous waste landfill, although it takes less space than the original waste. [8] Incineration releases gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ammonia, and volatile organic compounds. [9] Reactions in the furnace can also form hydrochloric acid gas and sulfur dioxide. To avoid releasing hazardous gases and solid waste suspended in those gases, modern incinerators are designed with systems to capture these emissions. [10]

Landfill

Hazardous waste may be sequestered in a hazardous waste landfill or permanent disposal facility. "In terms of hazardous waste, a landfill is defined as a disposal facility or part of a facility where hazardous waste is placed or on land and which is not a pile, a land treatment facility, a surface impoundment, an underground injection well, a salt dome formation, a salt bed formation, an underground mine, a cave, or a corrective action management unit (40 CFR 260.10)." [11] [12]

Pyrolysis

Some hazardous waste types may be eliminated using pyrolysis in a high temperature not necessarily through electrical arc but starved of oxygen to avoid combustion. However, when electrical arc is used to generate the required ultra heat (in excess of 3000 degree C temperature) all materials (waste) introduced into the process will melt into a molten slag and this technology is termed Plasma not pyrolysis. Plasma technology produces inert materials and when cooled solidifies into rock like material. These treatment methods are very expensive but may be preferable to high temperature incineration in some circumstances such as in the destruction of concentrated organic waste types, including PCBs, pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants. [13] [14]

In society

Management and health effects

Hazardous waste management and disposal comes with consequences if not done properly. If disposed of improperly, hazardous gaseous substances can be released into the air resulting in higher morbidity and mortality. [15] These gaseous substances can include hydrogen chloride, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and some may also include heavy metals. [15] With the prospect of gaseous material being released into the atmosphere, several organizations (RCRA, TSCA, HSWA, CERCLA) developed an identification scale in which hazardous materials and wastes are categorized in order to be able to quickly identify and mitigate potential leaks. F-List materials were identified as non-specific industrial practices waste, K-List materials were wastes generated from specific industrial processes - pesticides, petroleum, explosive industries, and the P & U list were commercially used generated waste and shelf stable pesticides. [15] Not only can mismanagement of hazardous wastes cause adverse direct health consequences through air pollution, mismanaged waste can also contaminate groundwater and soil. [15] In an Austrian study, people who live near industrial sites are "more often unemployed, have lower education levels, and are twice as likely to be immigrants." [16] This creates disproportionately larger issues for those who depend heavily on the land for harvests and streams for drinking water; this includes Native American populations. Though all lower-class and/or social minorities are at a higher risk for being exposed to toxic exposure, Native Americans are at a multiplied risk due to the facts stated above (Brook, 1998). Improper disposal of hazardous waste has resulted in many extreme health complications within certain tribes. Members of the Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne have suffered elevated levels of PCB [Polychlorinated Biphenyls] in their bloodstreams leading to higher rates of cancer. [17]

Global goals

The UN has a mandate on hazardous substances and wastes with recommendations to countries for dealing with hazardous waste. [18] 199 countries signed the 1992 Basel Convention, seeking to stop the flow of hazardous waste from developed countries to developing countries with less stringent environmental regulations. [19]

The international community has defined the responsible management of hazardous waste and chemicals as an important part of sustainable development by including it in Sustainable Development Goal 12. [20] Target 12.4 of this goal is to "achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle". One of the indicators for this target is: "hazardous waste generated per capita; and proportion of hazardous waste treated, by type of treatment". [3]

Regulatory history

In the United States

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

Hazardous wastes are wastes with properties that make them dangerous or potentially harmful to human health or the environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, contained gases, or sludges. They can be by-products of manufacturing processes or simply discarded commercial products, like cleaning fluids or pesticides. In regulatory terms, RCRA hazardous wastes are wastes that appear on one of the four hazardous wastes lists (F-list, K-list, P-list, or U-list), or exhibit at least one of the following four characteristics; ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity. in the US, Hazardous wastes are regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), Subtitle C. [21]

By definition, EPA determined that some specific wastes are hazardous. These wastes are incorporated into lists published by the Agency. These lists are organized into three categories: F-list (non-specific source wastes) found in the regulations at 40 CFR 261.31, K-list (source-specific wastes) found in the regulations at 40 CFR 261.32, and P-list and the U-list (discarded commercial chemical products) found in the regulations at 40 CFR 261.33.

RCRA's record keeping system helps to track the life cycle of hazardous waste and reduces the amount of hazardous waste illegally disposed.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) was enacted in 1980. The primary contribution of CERCLA was to create a "Superfund" and provide for the clean-up and remediation of closed and abandoned hazardous waste sites. CERCLA addresses historic releases of hazardous materials, but does not specifically manage hazardous wastes.

In India

Environmental Act and Hazardous Waste Rules

In 1984, a deadly methyl isocyanate gas leak known as the Bhopal disaster raised environmental awareness in India. [22] In response, the Indian government produced the Environmental Act in 1986, followed by the Hazardous Waste Rules in 1989. [23] With these rules, companies are only permitted by the state to produce hazardous waste if they are able to dispose of it safely. [24] However, state governments did not make these rules effective. There was around a decade delay between when hazardous waste landfills were requested and when they were built. During this time, companies disposed hazardous waste in various "temporary" hazardous waste locations, such as along roads and in canal pits, with no immediate plan to move it to proper facilities. [23]

Supreme Court action

The Supreme Court stepped in to prevent damage from hazardous waste in order to protect the right to life. A 1995 petition by the Research Foundation for Science, Technology, and Natural Resource Policy [25] spurred the Supreme Court to create the High Powered Committee (HPC) of Hazardous Waste, since data from pre-existing government boards was not usable. [23] This committee found studies linking pollution and improper waste treatment with higher amounts of hexavalent chromium, lead, and other heavy metals. Industries and regulators were effectively ignoring these studies. [23] In addition, the state was also not acting in accordance with the Basel Convention, an international treaty on the transport of hazardous waste. The Supreme Court modified the Hazardous Waste Rules and began the Supreme Court Monitoring Committee to follow up on its decisions. With this committee, the Court has been able to force companies polluting hazardous wastes to close.

Country examples

United States

The Valley of the Drums, a toxic waste dump in northern Bullitt County, Kentucky Valleyofdrums.jpg
The Valley of the Drums, a toxic waste dump in northern Bullitt County, Kentucky

In the United States, the treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste are regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Hazardous wastes are defined under RCRA in 40 CFR 261 and divided into two major categories: characteristic and listed. [26]

The requirements of the RCRA apply to all the companies that generate hazardous waste and those that store or dispose of hazardous waste in the United States. Many types of businesses generate hazardous waste. Dry cleaners, automobile repair shops, hospitals, exterminators, and photo processing centers may all generate hazardous waste. Some hazardous waste generators are larger companies such as chemical manufacturers, electroplating companies, and oil refineries.

A U.S. facility that treats, stores, or disposes of hazardous waste must obtain a permit under the RCRA. Generators and transporters of hazardous waste must meet specific requirements for handling, managing, and tracking waste. Through the RCRA, Congress directed the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to create regulations to manage hazardous waste. Under this mandate, the EPA has developed strict requirements for all aspects of hazardous waste management, including treating, storing, and disposing of hazardous waste. In addition to these federal requirements, states may develop more stringent requirements that are broader in scope than the federal regulations. Furthermore, RCRA allows states to develop regulatory programs that are at least as stringent as RCRA, and after review by EPA, the states may take over responsibility for implementing the requirements under RCRA. Most states take advantage of this authority, implementing their own hazardous waste programs that are at least as stringent and, in some cases, stricter than the federal program.

The U.S. government provides several tools for mapping hazardous wastes to particular locations. These tools also allow the user to view additional information.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemical waste</span> Waste made from harmful chemicals

Chemical waste is any excess, unused, or unwanted chemical. Chemical waste may be classified as hazardous waste, non-hazardous waste, universal waste, or household hazardous waste, each of which is regulated separately by national governments and the United Nations. Hazardous waste is material that displays one or more of the following four characteristics: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and toxicity. This information, along with chemical disposal requirements, is typically available on a chemical's Safety Data Sheet (SDS). Radioactive and biohazardous wastes require additional or different methods of handling and disposal, and are often regulated differently than standard hazardous wastes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Industrial waste</span> Waste produced by industrial activity or manufacturing processes

Industrial waste is the waste produced by industrial activity which includes any material that is rendered useless during a manufacturing process such as that of factories, mills, and mining operations. Types of industrial waste include dirt and gravel, masonry and concrete, scrap metal, oil, solvents, chemicals, scrap lumber, even vegetable matter from restaurants. Industrial waste may be solid, semi-solid or liquid in form. It may be hazardous waste or non-hazardous waste. Industrial waste may pollute the nearby soil or adjacent water bodies, and can contaminate groundwater, lakes, streams, rivers or coastal waters. Industrial waste is often mixed into municipal waste, making accurate assessments difficult. An estimate for the US goes as high as 7.6 billion tons of industrial waste produced annually, as of 2017. Most countries have enacted legislation to deal with the problem of industrial waste, but strictness and compliance regimes vary. Enforcement is always an issue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxic waste</span> Any unwanted material which can cause harm

Toxic waste is any unwanted material in all forms that can cause harm. Mostly generated by industry, consumer products like televisions, computers, and phones contain toxic chemicals that can pollute the air and contaminate soil and water. Disposing of such waste is a major public health issue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Resource Conservation and Recovery Act</span> Federal law in the United States

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), enacted in 1976, is the primary federal law in the United States governing the disposal of solid waste and hazardous waste.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure</span>

Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) is a soil sample extraction method for chemical analysis employed as an analytical method to simulate leaching through a landfill. The testing methodology is used to determine if a waste is characteristically hazardous, i.e., classified as one of the "D" listed wastes by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The extract is analyzed for substances appropriate to the protocol.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Municipal solid waste</span> Type of waste consisting of everyday items discarded by the public

Municipal solid waste (MSW), commonly known as trash or garbage in the United States and rubbish in Britain, is a waste type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public. "Garbage" can also refer specifically to food waste, as in a garbage disposal; the two are sometimes collected separately. In the European Union, the semantic definition is 'mixed municipal waste,' given waste code 20 03 01 in the European Waste Catalog. Although the waste may originate from a number of sources that has nothing to do with a municipality, the traditional role of municipalities in collecting and managing these kinds of waste have produced the particular etymology 'municipal.'

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Construction waste</span> Unwanted material produced directly or incidentally by the construction industries

Construction waste or debris is any kind of debris from the construction process. Different government agencies have clear definitions. For example, the United States Environmental Protection Agency EPA defines construction and demolition materials as “debris generated during the construction, renovation and demolition of buildings, roads, and bridges.” Additionally, the EPA has categorized Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste into three categories: non-dangerous, hazardous, and semi-hazardous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Household hazardous waste</span>

Household hazardous waste (HHW) was a term coined by Dave Galvin from Seattle, Washington in 1982 as part of the fulfillment of a US EPA grant. This new term was reflective of the recent passage of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 in the US. This act and subsequent regulations strengthened the environmental protection requirements for landfills, in Subpart D, and created a "cradle to grave" management system for hazardous wastes, in Subpart C. From RCRA 1976 the US EPA promulgated rules in 1980 which explicitly excluded any wastes from household origins from regulation as a hazardous waste at the federal level. Most US states adopted parallel regulations to RCRA 1976 but were allowed to be more stringent. California took advantage of this allowance and chose to not exempt household origin wastes from their state hazardous waste laws. HHW products exhibit many of the same dangerous characteristics as fully regulated hazardous waste which are their potential for reactivity, ignitability, corrosivity, toxicity, or persistence. Examples include drain cleaners, oil paint, motor oil, antifreeze, fuel, poisons, pesticides, herbicides and rodenticides, fluorescent lamps, lamp ballasts containing PCBs, some smoke detectors, and in some states, consumer electronics. Except for California, most states exclude HHW from their hazardous waste regulations and regulate the management of HHW largely under their solid waste regulatory schemes.

Title 40 is a part of the United States Code of Federal Regulations. Title 40 arranges mainly environmental regulations that were promulgated by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), based on the provisions of United States laws. Parts of the regulation may be updated annually on July 1.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Regulation of ship pollution in the United States</span>

In the United States, several federal agencies and laws have some jurisdiction over pollution from ships in U.S. waters. States and local government agencies also have responsibilities for ship-related pollution in some situations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hazardous waste in the United States</span>

Under United States environmental policy, hazardous waste is a waste that has the potential to:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biomedical waste</span> Waste containing infectious material

Biomedical waste or hospital waste is any kind of waste containing infectious materials generated during the treatment of humans or animals as well as during research involving biologics. It may also include waste associated with the generation of biomedical waste that visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin, as well research laboratory waste containing biomolecules or organisms that are mainly restricted from environmental release. As detailed below, discarded sharps are considered biomedical waste whether they are contaminated or not, due to the possibility of being contaminated with blood and their propensity to cause injury when not properly contained and disposed. Biomedical waste is a type of biowaste.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waste</span> Unwanted or unusable materials

Waste are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance discarded after primary use, or is worthless, defective and of no use. A by-product, by contrast is a joint product of relatively minor economic value. A waste product may become a by-product, joint product or resource through an invention that raises a waste product's value above zero.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Landfills in the United States</span> American landfills

Municipal solid waste (MSW) – more commonly known as trash or garbage – consists of everyday items people use and then throw away, such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps and papers. In 2018, Americans generated about 265.3 million tonnes of waste. In the United States, landfills are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the states' environmental agencies. Municipal solid waste landfills (MSWLF) are required to be designed to protect the environment from contaminants that may be present in the solid waste stream.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Waste management law</span> Area of law regarding waste

Waste management laws govern the transport, treatment, storage, and disposal of all manner of waste, including municipal solid waste, hazardous waste, and nuclear waste, among many other types. Waste laws are generally designed to minimize or eliminate the uncontrolled dispersal of waste materials into the environment in a manner that may cause ecological or biological harm, and include laws designed to reduce the generation of waste and promote or mandate waste recycling. Regulatory efforts include identifying and categorizing waste types and mandating transport, treatment, storage, and disposal practices.

Solid waste policy in the United States is aimed at developing and implementing proper mechanisms to effectively manage solid waste. For solid waste policy to be effective, inputs should come from stakeholders, including citizens, businesses, community-based organizations, non-governmental organizations, government agencies, universities, and other research organizations. These inputs form the basis of policy frameworks that influence solid waste management decisions. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates household, industrial, manufacturing, and commercial solid and hazardous wastes under the 1976 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Effective solid waste management is a cooperative effort involving federal, state, regional, and local entities. Thus, the RCRA's Solid Waste program section D encourages the environmental departments of each state to develop comprehensive plans to manage nonhazardous industrial and municipal solid waste. Each state will have different methods on how to educate and control the flow of waste

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mercury regulation in the United States</span>

Mercury regulation in the United States limit the maximum concentrations of mercury (Hg) that is permitted in air, water, soil, food and drugs. The regulations are promulgated by agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA), as well as a variety of state and local authorities. EPA published the Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS) regulation in 2012; the first federal standards requiring power plants to limit emissions of mercury and other toxic gases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exemptions for fracking under United States federal law</span>

There are many exemptions for fracking under United States federal law: the oil and gas industries are exempt or excluded from certain sections of a number of the major federal environmental laws. These laws range from protecting clean water and air, to preventing the release of toxic substances and chemicals into the environment: the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Safe Drinking Water Act, National Environmental Policy Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, commonly known as Superfund.

Water in Arkansas is an important issue encompassing the conservation, protection, management, distribution and use of the water resource in the state. Arkansas contains a mixture of groundwater and surface water, with a variety of state and federal agencies responsible for the regulation of the water resource. In accordance with agency rules, state, and federal law, the state's water treatment facilities utilize engineering, chemistry, science and technology to treat raw water from the environment to potable water standards and distribute it through water mains to homes, farms, business and industrial customers. Following use, wastewater is collected in collection and conveyance systems, decentralized sewer systems or septic tanks and treated in accordance with regulations at publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) before being discharged to the environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health effects of coal ash</span>

Coal ash, also known as coal combustion residuals (CCRs), is the mineral residue that remains from burning coal. Exposure to coal ash and to the toxic substances it contains may pose a health risk to workers in coal-fired power plants and residents living near coal ash disposal sites.

References

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  2. ↑ Martínez, Johann H.; Romero, Sergi; Ramasco, José J.; Estrada, Ernesto (2022-03-29). "The world-wide waste web". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 1615. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-28810-x. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   8964736 . PMID   35351874.
  3. 1 2 Our World in Data team (July 18, 2023). "Sustainable Development Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns". Our World in Data. Retrieved April 7, 2024.
  4. ↑ "Hazardous Waste Management - Smoke Detectors". Morris County Municipal Utilities Authority. Archived from the original on April 14, 2007.
  5. ↑ Malviya, Rachana; Chaudhary, Rubina (2006). "Factors affecting hazardous waste solidification/Stabilization: A review". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 137 (1): 267–276. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.01.065. PMID   16530943.
  6. ↑ Carysforth, Carol; Neild, Mike (2002). GCSE Applied Business for Edexcel: Double Award. Heinemann. ISBN   9780435447205.
  7. ↑ Zhao, Xin-yue; Yang, Jin-yan; Ning, Ning; Yang, Zhi-shan (2022-06-01). "Chemical stabilization of heavy metals in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash: a review". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 29 (27): 40384–40402. Bibcode:2022ESPR...2940384Z. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-19649-2. ISSN   1614-7499. PMID   35338465. S2CID   247683142.
  8. 1 2 3 "A Citizen's Guide to Incineration" (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. September 2012. Retrieved 2024-04-02.
  9. ↑ "Emission From Waste Incineration" (PDF). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. March 5, 2014. Retrieved April 2, 2024.
  10. ↑ Incineration, National Research Council (US) Committee on Health Effects of Waste (2000), "Incineration Processes and Environmental Releases", Waste Incineration & Public Health, National Academies Press (US), retrieved 2024-04-02
  11. ↑ "Hazardous Waste Landfills". Archived from the original on 2019-05-14. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
  12. ↑ Land Disposal Restrictions for Hazardous Waste
  13. ↑ "Scheduled Wastes - Plasma Arc Systems". Archived from the original on 2009-10-05. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
  14. ↑ "Microsoft PowerPoint - ESM of pesticide POPs part 3" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2017-11-19.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Marfe, Gabriella; Di Stefano, Carla, eds. (2020-08-23). Hazardous Waste Management and Health Risks. BENTHAM SCIENCE PUBLISHERS. doi:10.2174/97898114547451200101. ISBN   978-981-14-5474-5.
  16. ↑ Glatter-Götz, Helene; Mohai, Paul; Haas, Willi; Plutzar, Christoph (2019-07-01). "Environmental inequality in Austria: do inhabitants' socioeconomic characteristics differ depending on their proximity to industrial polluters?". Environmental Research Letters. 14 (7): 074007. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/ab1611 . ISSN   1748-9326.
  17. ↑ Brook, Daniel (July 3, 2006). "Environmental Genocide:: Native Americans and Toxic Waste". The American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 57 (1): 105–113. doi:10.1111/j.1536-7150.1998.tb03260.x. ISSN   0002-9246.
  18. ↑ "Special rapporteur on toxics and human rights". United Nations Human Rights Special Procedures. Retrieved April 7, 2024.
  19. ↑ "Governments agree landmark decisions to protect people and planet from hazardous chemicals and waste, including plastic waste". United Nations Environment Programme. May 12, 2019. Retrieved April 7, 2024.
  20. ↑ "Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017" (PDF). United Nations Statistics Division - UN-GGIM. July 10, 2017. Retrieved April 12, 2024.
  21. ↑ Horinko, Marianne, Cathryn Courtin. “Waste Management: A Half Century of Progress.” EPA Alumni Association. March 2016.
  22. ↑ Broughton, Edward (2005-05-10). "The Bhopal disaster and its aftermath: a review". Environmental Health. 4 (1): 6. doi: 10.1186/1476-069X-4-6 . ISSN   1476-069X. PMC   1142333 . PMID   15882472.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Sharma, Dinesh C. (June 2005). "By Order of the Court: Environmental Cleanup in India". Environmental Health Perspectives. 113 (6): A394–A397. doi:10.1289/ehp.113-a394. ISSN   0091-6765. PMC   1257623 . PMID   15929881.
  24. ↑ "The Hazardous Wastes Rules, 1989" (PDF). Government of Punjab. Ministry of Environment and Forests. July 28, 1989.
  25. ↑ "Vandana Shiva | Indian Environmentalist, Activist & Scientist | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-04-07.
  26. ↑ 40 CFR 261
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