Shortening

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Strutto, clarified pork fat or lard, a type of shortening common in Italy and Corsica (where it is named sdruttu) Strutto.jpg
Strutto, clarified pork fat or lard, a type of shortening common in Italy and Corsica (where it is named sdruttu)

Shortening is any fat that is a solid at room temperature and is used to make crumbly pastry and other food products.

Contents

The idea of shortening dates back to at least the 18th century, well before the invention of modern, shelf-stable vegetable shortening. [1] In the earlier centuries, lard was the primary ingredient used to shorten dough. [2] The reason it is called shortening is that it makes the resulting food crumbly, or to behave as if it had short fibers. Solid fat prevents cross-linking between gluten molecules. This cross-linking would give dough elasticity, so it could be stretched into longer pieces. [2] In pastries such as cake, which should not be elastic, shortening is used to produce the desired texture. [1] [2]

History and market

A 1918 advertisement for shortening Snowdrift shortening.jpg
A 1918 advertisement for shortening

Originally shortening was synonymous with lard, but with the invention of margarine from beef tallow by French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès in 1869, margarine also came to be included in the term. Since the invention of hydrogenated vegetable oil in the early 20th century, "shortening" has come almost exclusively to mean hydrogenated vegetable oil. Modern margarine is made mainly of refined seed oil and water, and may also contain milk. Vegetable shortening shares many properties with lard: both are semi-solid fats with a higher smoke point than butter and margarine. They contain less water and are thus less prone to splattering, making them safer for frying. Lard and shortening have a higher fat content compared to about 80% for butter and margarine. Cake margarines and shortenings tend to contain a few percent of monoglycerides whereas other margarines typically have less. Such "high ratio shortenings" blend better with hydrophilic ingredients such as starches and sugar. [3]

Hydrogenation of organic substances was first developed by the French chemist Paul Sabatier in 1897, and in 1901 the German chemist Wilhelm Normann developed the hydrogenation of fats, which he patented in 1902. [4] In 1907, a German chemist, Edwin Cuno Kayser, moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, the home town of soap manufacturer Procter & Gamble. He had worked for British soap manufacturer Joseph Crosfield and Sons and was well acquainted with Normann's process, as Crosfield and Sons owned the British rights to Normann's patent. [4] Soon after arriving, Kayser made a business deal with Procter & Gamble, and presented the company with two processes to hydrogenate cottonseed oil, with the intent of creating a raw material for soap. [4] Another inventor by the name of Wallace McCaw in Macon, Georgia also played a role in the invention of shortening. In 1905 McCaw patented a process in which he could turn inexpensive and commercially useless cottonseeds into imitation lard and soap. [5] Later in 1909, Procter & Gamble hired McCaw and purchased his patents along with the patents of other scientists working on partial hydrogenation which later helped in the development of "shortening". [6] Since the product looked like lard, Procter & Gamble instead began selling it as a vegetable fat for cooking purposes in June 1911, calling it "Crisco", a modification of the phrase "crystallized cottonseed oil". [4]

A triglyceride molecule, the main constituent of shortening Trimyristin-3D-vdW.png
A triglyceride molecule, the main constituent of shortening

While similar to lard, vegetable shortening was much cheaper to produce. Shortening also required no refrigeration, which further lowered its costs and increased its appeal in a time when refrigerators were rare. Shortening was also more neutral in flavor than butter and lard which gave it a unique advantage when cooking. [7] With these advantages, plus an intensive advertisement campaign by Procter & Gamble, Crisco quickly gained popularity in American households. [4] The company targeted mothers by presenting shortening as a more economical and cleaner way of preparing meals. Procter & Gamble played into the neutral flavor of shortening as well as the high smoke point. As a result, they claimed that the natural flavors of the meal would shine through and be free of black particles and unruly smells common with other fats. [8] Procter & Gamble also advertised how economical it was to use shortening, often advertising cheap recipes incorporating shortening to appeal to frugal mothers. [9] As food production became increasingly industrialized and manufacturers sought low-cost raw materials, the use of vegetable shortening also became common in the food industry. In addition, vast US government-financed surpluses of cottonseed oil, corn oil, and soybeans also helped create a market in low-cost vegetable shortening. [10]

Crisco, owned by The J.M. Smucker Company since 2002, remains the best-known brand of shortening in the US, nowadays consisting of a blend of partially and fully hydrogenated soybean and palm oils. [11] In Ireland and the UK, Trex is a popular brand[ citation needed ], while in Australia, Copha is popular, made primarily from coconut oil.

Shortened dough

A short dough is one that is crumbly [2] or mealy. The opposite of a short dough is a "long" dough, one that stretches. [2]

Vegetable shortening (or butter, or other solid fats) can produce both types of dough; the difference is in technique. To produce a short dough, which is commonly used for tarts, the shortening is cut into the flour with a food processor, a pastry blender, a pair of table knives, fingers, or other utensil until the resulting mixture has a fine, cornmeal-like texture. For a long dough, the shortening is cut in only until the pea-sized crumbs are formed, or even larger lumps may be included. After cutting in the fat, the liquid (if any) is added and the dough is shaped for baking.

Neither short dough nor long flake dough are considered to be creamed or stirred batters.

Health concerns and reformulation

In the early 21st century, vegetable shortening became the subject of some health concerns due to its traditional formulation from partially hydrogenated vegetable oils that contain trans fat, a type not found in significant amounts in any naturally occurring food, that have been linked to a number of adverse health effects. [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] Consequently, a low trans fat variant of US brand Crisco was introduced in 2004. In January 2007, all Crisco products were reformulated to contain less than one gram of trans fat per serving, and the separately marketed trans-fat-free version introduced in 2004 was consequently discontinued. [17] In 2018, the FDA issued a ban on partially hydrogenated oils, forcing Procter & Gamble to reformulate their shortening. [18] As of October 2024 Crisco contains fully hydrogenated palm oil instead of partially hydrogenated vegetable oil in order to comply with FDA regulations. [19] However, fully hydrogenated oils are hard and waxy which has resulted in Crisco mixing their shortening with soybean oils as well as more palm oil. [19] As a result, the new Crisco formula which is heavily dependent upon palm oil is controversial due to the environmental impact of palm oil on rainforests as large areas of rainforest must be cleared. [20] In 2006, UK brand Cookeen was also reformulated to remove trans fats. [10]

Instead of using fully hydrogenated oils to replace partially hydrogenated oils in food, a possible alternative could be the use of plant sterols, as highlighted by the work of Prof J Ralph Blanchfield. His research in food science indicates that plant sterols could be used in products like shortening to lower the risk of coronary heart disease by inhibiting the absorption of cholesterol in the small intestine. [21]

Properties of common cooking fats (per 100 g)
Type of fat Total fat (g) Saturated fat (g) Mono­unsaturated fat (g) Poly­unsaturated fat (g) Smoke point
Butter [22] 8151213150 °C (302 °F) [23]
Canola oil [24] 1006–762–6424–26205 °C (401 °F) [25] [26]
Coconut oil [27] 998362177 °C (351 °F)
Corn oil [28] 10013–1427–2952–54230 °C (446 °F) [23]
Lard [29] 100394511190 °C (374 °F) [23]
Peanut oil [30] 100165720225 °C (437 °F) [23]
Olive oil [31] 10013–1959–746–16190 °C (374 °F) [23]
Rice bran oil 100253837250 °C (482 °F) [32]
Soybean oil [33] 100152257–58257 °C (495 °F) [23]
Suet [34] 9452323200 °C (392 °F)
Ghee [35] 9962294204 °C (399 °F)
Sunflower oil [36] 100102066225 °C (437 °F) [23]
Sunflower oil (high oleic)1001284 [25] 4 [25]
Vegetable shortening [37] 100254128165 °C (329 °F) [23]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vegetable oil</span> Oil extracted from seeds or from other parts of plants

Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of edible plants. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are mixtures of triglycerides. Soybean oil, grape seed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils, or fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are examples of fats from other parts of plants. In common usage, vegetable oil may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature. Vegetable oils are usually edible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Margarine</span> Semi-solid oily spread often used as a butter substitute

Margarine is a spread used for flavoring, baking, and cooking. It is most often used as a substitute for butter. Although originally made from animal fats, most margarine consumed today is made from vegetable oil. The spread was originally named oleomargarine from Latin for oleum and Greek margarite. The name was later shortened to margarine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coconut oil</span> Edible oil derived from coconut

Coconut oil is an edible oil derived from the kernels, meat, and milk of the coconut palm fruit. Coconut oil is a white solid fat below around 25 °C (77 °F), and a clear thin liquid oil at higher temperatures. Unrefined varieties have a distinct coconut aroma. Coconut oil is used as a food oil, and in industrial applications for cosmetics and detergent production. The oil is rich in medium-chain fatty acids.

A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all single bonds between the carbon atoms. A fat known as a glyceride is made of two kinds of smaller molecules: a short glycerol backbone and fatty acids that each contain a long linear or branched chain of carbon (C) atoms. Along the chain, some carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by double bonds (-C=C-). A double bond along the carbon chain can react with a pair of hydrogen atoms to change into a single -C-C- bond, with each H atom now bonded to one of the two C atoms. Glyceride fats without any carbon chain double bonds are called saturated because they are "saturated with" hydrogen atoms, having no double bonds available to react with more hydrogen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemp oil</span> Oil from hemp seeds

Hemp oil is oil obtained by pressing hemp seeds. Cold pressed, unrefined hemp oil is dark to clear light green in color, with a nutty flavor. The darker the color, the grassier the flavour. It should not be confused with hash oil, a tetrahydrocannabinol-containing oil made from the Cannabis flower.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grape seed oil</span> Liquid fat derived from grape seeds

Grape seed oil is a vegetable oil derived from the seeds of grapes. Grape seeds are a winemaking by-product, and oil made from the seeds is commonly used as an edible oil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cottonseed oil</span> Cooking oil

Cottonseed oil is cooking oil from the seeds of cotton plants of various species, mainly Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum, that are grown for cotton fiber, animal feed, and oil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oleic acid</span> Monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid

Oleic acid is a fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish due to the presence of impurities. In chemical terms, oleic acid is classified as a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid, abbreviated with a lipid number of 18:1 cis-9, and a main product of Δ9-desaturase. It has the formula CH3−(CH2)7−CH=CH−(CH2)7−COOH. The name derives from the Latin word oleum, which means oil. It is the most common fatty acid in nature. The salts and esters of oleic acid are called oleates. It is a common component of oils, and thus occurs in many types of food, as well as in soap.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Omega-6 fatty acid</span> Fatty acids where the sixth bond is double

Omega−6 fatty acids are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carbon-carbon double bond in the n−6 position, that is, the sixth bond, counting from the methyl end.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peanut oil</span> Vegetable oil derived from peanuts

Peanut oil, also known as groundnut oil or arachis oil, is a vegetable oil derived from peanuts. The oil usually has a mild or neutral flavor but, if made with roasted peanuts, has a stronger peanut flavor and aroma. It is often used in American, Chinese, Indian, African and Southeast Asian cuisine, both for general cooking and in the case of roasted oil, for added flavor. Peanut oil has a high smoke point relative to many other cooking oils, so it is commonly used for frying foods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crisco</span> American shortening brand

Crisco is an American brand of shortening that is produced by B&G Foods. Introduced in June 1911 by Procter & Gamble, it was the first shortening to be made entirely of vegetable oil, originally cottonseed oil. Additional products marketed under the Crisco brand include a cooking spray, various olive oils, and other cooking oils, including canola, corn, peanut, sunflower, and blended oils.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rice bran oil</span> Oil extracted from the hard outer brown layer of rice

Rice bran oil is the oil extracted from the hard outer brown layer of rice called bran. It is known for its high smoke point of 232 °C (450 

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corn oil</span> Oil from the seeds of corn

Corn oil or maize oil (British) is oil extracted from the germ of corn (maize). Its main use is in cooking, where its high smoke point makes refined corn oil a valuable frying oil. It is also a key ingredient in some margarines. Corn oil is generally less expensive than most other types of vegetable oils.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunflower oil</span> Oil pressed from the seed of Helianthus annuus

Sunflower oil is the non-volatile oil pressed from the seeds of the sunflower. Sunflower oil is commonly used in food as a frying oil, and in cosmetic formulations as an emollient.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avocado oil</span> Edible oil pressed from the pulp of avocados

Avocado oil is an edible oil extracted from the pulp of avocados, the fruit of Persea americana. It is used as an edible oil both raw and for cooking, where it is noted for its high smoke point. It is also used for lubrication and in cosmetics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cottolene</span> U.S. brand of shortening

Cottolene was a brand of shortening made of beef suet and cottonseed oil produced in the United States from the late 1880s until the mid-20th century. It was the first mass-produced and mass-marketed alternative to cooking with lard, and is remembered today for its iconic national ad campaign and the cookbooks that were written to promote its use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lard</span> Semi-solid white pork fat product

Lard is a semi-solid white fat product obtained by rendering the fatty tissue of a pig. It is distinguished from tallow, a similar product derived from fat of cattle or sheep.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cooking oil</span> Oil consumed by humans, of vegetable or animal origin

Cooking oil is a plant or animal liquid fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. Oil allows higher cooking temperatures than water, making cooking faster and more flavorful, while likewise distributing heat, reducing burning and uneven cooking. It sometimes imparts its own flavor. Cooking oil is also used in food preparation and flavoring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trans fat</span> Type of unsaturated fat

Trans fat, also called trans-unsaturated fatty acids, or trans fatty acids, is a type of unsaturated fat that occurs in foods. Small amounts of trans fats occur naturally, but large amounts are found in some processed foods. Since consumption of trans fats is unhealthy, artificial trans fats are highly regulated or banned in many nations. However, they are still widely consumed in developing nations, resulting in hundreds of thousands of deaths each year. The World Health Organization (WHO) had set a goal to make the world free from industrially produced trans fat by the end of 2023. The goal was not met, and the WHO announced another goal "for accelerated action till 2025 to complete this effort" along with associated support on 1 February 2024.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fat hydrogenation</span> Addition of hydrogen atoms to fat molecules

Fat hydrogenation is the process of combining unsaturated fat with hydrogen in order to partially or completely convert it into saturated fat. Typically this hydrogenation is done with liquid vegetable oils resulting in solid or semi-solid fats.

References

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  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Moncel, Bethany (31 July 2020). "Learn About Each Variety of Shortening to Use in Baking". The Spruce Eats. Retrieved 12 September 2020.
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  6. ↑ Massee, Jordon (4 February 2024). Accepted Fables. Indigo Custom. ISBN   9780976287551.
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  9. ↑ Gressle, Lesley. "933 Crisco Vintage Ad, Advertising Art, Magazine Ad, 1930's Dinner, Advertisement, 1930's Recipes, Great for Framing". Etsy. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
  10. 1 2 The Guardian: Grease is the Word, Guardian Unlimited, 27 September 2006
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  13. ↑ Kummerow FA, Zhou Q, Mahfouz MM, Smiricky MR, Grieshop CM, Schaeffer DJ (April 2004). "Trans fatty acids in hydrogenated fat inhibited the synthesis of the polyunsaturated fatty acids in the phospholipid of arterial cells". Life Sciences. 74 (22): 2707–23. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2003.10.013. PMID   15043986.
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  16. ↑ Menaa F, Menaa A, Menaa B, Tréton J (June 2013). "Trans-fatty acids, dangerous bonds for health? A background review paper of their use, consumption, health implications and regulation in France". European Journal of Nutrition. 52 (4): 1289–302. doi:10.1007/s00394-012-0484-4. PMID   23269652. S2CID   206968361.
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  18. ↑ "Final Determination Regarding Partially Hydrogenated Oils". Federal Register. Retrieved 14 October 2024.
  19. 1 2 "Nutritional Information". Crisco. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
  20. ↑ "Palm Oil". World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 25 November 2023.
  21. ↑ "Phytosterol esters (Plant Sterol and Stanol Esters)". Institute of Food Science + Technology.
  22. ↑ "Butter, salted". FoodData Central. USDA Agricultural Research Service. 1 April 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2024.
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 The Culinary Institute of America (2011). The Professional Chef (9th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   978-0-470-42135-2. OCLC   707248142.
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  25. 1 2 3 "Nutrient database, Release 25". United States Department of Agriculture.
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  28. ↑ "Oil, corn, nutrients". FoodData Central. USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
  29. ↑ "Lard, nutrients". FoodData Central. USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
  30. ↑ "Peanut oil, proximates". FoodData Central, USDA Agricultural Research Service. 28 April 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2024.
  31. ↑ "Oil, olive, extra virgin, nutrients". FoodData Central. USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
  32. ↑ "Rice Bran Oil FAQ's". AlfaOne.ca. Archived from the original on 27 September 2014. Retrieved 3 October 2014.
  33. ↑ "Oil, soybean, nutrients". FoodData Central. USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
  34. ↑ "Beef, variety meats and by-products, suet, raw, nutrients". FoodData Central. USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
  35. ↑ "Nutrition data for Butter oil, anhydrous (ghee) per 100 gram reference amount"". FoodData Central. USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
  36. ↑ "Sunflower oil, nutrients". FoodData Central. USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
  37. ↑ "Shortening, vegetable, nutrients". FoodData Central. USDA Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 24 April 2020.

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