Most frequently made from cow's milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. It is made by churning milk or cream to separate the fat globules from the buttermilk. Salt has been added to butter since antiquity to help preserve it, particularly when being transported; salt may still play a preservation role but is less important today as the entire supply chain is usually refrigerated. In modern times, salt may be added for taste.[1]Food coloring is sometimes added to butter.[2]Rendering butter, removing the water and milk solids, produces clarified butter, or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat.
Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, where the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a firm solid when refrigerated but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature and melts to a thin liquid consistency at 32 to 35°C (90 to 95°F). The density of butter is 911g/L (15+1⁄4oz/USpt).[3] It generally has a pale yellow color but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its natural, unmodified color is dependent on the source animal's feed and genetics, but the commercial manufacturing process sometimes alters this with food colorings like annatto[4] or carotene.
Etymology
Butter spread on a crumpet
The word butter derives (via Germanic languages) from the Latinbutyrum,[5] which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον (bouturon)[6][7] and βούτυρος.[8] This may be a compound of βοῦς (bous), "ox, cow"[9] + τυρός (turos), "cheese", that is "cow-cheese".[10][11] The word turos ("cheese") is attested in Mycenaean Greek.[12] The Latinized form is found in the name butyric acid, a compound found in rancid butter[13] and other dairy products.[14]
Churning cream into butter using a hand-held mixer
Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules. These globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids (fatty acidemulsifiers) and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, separating from the other parts of the cream. Variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three separate forms: free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules. In the finished product, different proportions of these forms result in different consistencies within the butter; butters with many crystals are harder than butters dominated by free fats.[citation needed]
Churning produces small butter grains floating in the water-based portion of the cream. This watery liquid is called buttermilk, although the buttermilk most commonly sold today is instead directly fermented skimmed milk.[15] The buttermilk is drained off; sometimes more buttermilk is removed by rinsing the grains with water. Then the grains are "worked": pressed and kneaded together. When prepared manually, this is done using wooden boards called scotch hands. This consolidates the butter into a solid mass and breaks up embedded pockets of buttermilk or water into tiny droplets.[citation needed]
Commercial butter is about 80% butterfat and 15% water; traditionally-made butter may have as little as 65% fat and 30% water. Butterfat is a mixture of triglyceride, a triester derived from glycerol, and three of any of several fatty acid groups.[16]Annatto is sometimes added by U.S. butter manufacturers without declaring it on the label because the U.S. allows butter to have an undisclosed flavorless and natural coloring agent (whereas all other foods in the U.S. must label coloring agents).[17] The preservative lactic acid is sometimes added instead of salt (and as a flavor enhancer), and sometimes additional diacetyl is added to boost the buttery flavor (in the U.S., both ingredients can be listed simply as "natural flavors").[18] When used together in the NIZO manufacturing method, these two flavorings produce the flavor of cultured butter without actually fully fermenting.[19]
Types
Chart of milk products and production relationships, including butter
Before modern factory butter making, cream was usually collected from several milkings and was therefore several days old and somewhat fermented by the time it was made into butter. Butter made in this traditional way (from a fermented cream) is known as cultured butter. During fermentation, the cream naturally sours as bacteria convert milk sugars into lactic acid. The fermentation process produces additional aroma compounds, including diacetyl, which makes for a fuller-flavored and more "buttery" tasting product.[20]:35
Butter made from fresh cream is called sweet cream butter. Production of sweet cream butter first became common in the 19th century, when the development of refrigeration and the mechanical milk separator[20]:33 made sweet cream butter faster and cheaper to produce at scale[21] (sweet cream butter can be made in 6 hours, whereas cultured butter can take up to 72 hours to make).
Cultured butter is preferred throughout continental Europe, while sweet cream butter dominates in the United States and the United Kingdom. Chef Jansen Chan, the director of pastry operations at the International Culinary Center in Manhattan, says, "It's no secret that dairy in France and most of Europe is higher quality than most of the U.S."[22] The combination of butter culturing, the 82% butterfat minimum (as opposed to the 80% minimum in the U.S.[23]), and the fact that French butter is grass-fed,[24] accounts for why French pastry (and French food in general) has a reputation for being richer-tasting and flakier.[25] Cultured butter is sometimes labeled "European-style" butter in the United States, although cultured butter is made and sold by some, especially Amish, dairies.
Milk that is to be made into butter is usually pasteurized during production to kill pathogenic bacteria and other microbes. Butter made from raw milk is very rare and can be dangerous because it is made from unpasteurized milk. Commercial raw milk products are not legal to sell through interstate commerce in the United States[26] and are very rare in Europe.[20]:34 Raw cream butter is generally only found made at home by dairy farmers or by consumers who have purchased raw whole milk directly from them, skimmed the cream themselves, and made butter with it.
Clarified butter has almost all of its water and milk solids removed, leaving almost-pure butterfat. Clarified butter is made by heating butter to its melting point and then allowing it to cool; after settling, the remaining components separate by density. At the top, whey proteins form a skin, which is removed. The resulting butterfat is then poured off from the mixture of water and casein proteins that settle to the bottom.[20]:37
Ghee is clarified butter that has been heated to around 120°C (250°F) after the water evaporated, turning the milk solids brown. This process flavors the ghee, and also produces antioxidants that help protect it from rancidity. Because of this, ghee can be kept for six to eight months under normal conditions.[20]:37
Whey butter
Cream may be separated (usually by a centrifuge or a sedimentation) from whey instead of milk, as a byproduct of cheese-making. Whey butter may be made from whey cream. Whey cream and butter have a lower fat content and taste more salty, tangy and "cheesy".[27] They are also cheaper to make than "sweet" cream and butter. The fat content of whey is low, so 1,000 pounds of whey will typically give only three pounds of butter.[28][29]
Traditional butter-making in Palestine. Ancient techniques were still practiced in the early 20th century. Source: National Geographic, March 1914.
Elaine Khosrova traces the invention of butter back to Neolithic-era Africa 8,000 BC in her book.[31] A later Sumerian tablet, dating to approximately 2,500 B.C., describes the butter making process, from the milking of cattle,[32][33] while contemporary Sumerian tablets identify butter as a ritual offering.[34][35]
In the Mediterranean climate, unclarified butter spoils quickly, unlike cheese, so it is not a practical method of preserving the nutrients of milk. The ancient Greeks and Romans seemed to use the butter only as unguent and medicine and considered it as a food of the barbarians.[8] A play by the Greek comic poet Anaxandrides refers to Thracians as boutyrophagoi, "butter-eaters".[36] In his Natural History, Pliny the Elder calls butter "the most delicate of food among barbarous nations" and goes on to describe its medicinal properties.[37] Later, the physician Galen also described butter as a medicinal agent only.[38]
Middle Ages
Woman churning butter; Compost et Kalendrier des Bergères, Paris 1499
In the cooler climates of northern Europe, people could store butter longer before it spoiled. Scandinavia has the oldest tradition in Europe of butter export trade, dating at least to the 12th century.[39] After the fall of Rome and through much of the Middle Ages, butter was a common food across most of Europe—but had a low reputation, and so was consumed principally by peasants. Butter slowly became more accepted by the upper class, notably when the Roman Catholic Church allowed its consumption during Lent from the early 16th century. Bread and butter became common fare among the middle class and the English, in particular, gained a reputation for their liberal use of melted butter as a sauce with meat and vegetables.[20]:33
In antiquity, butter was used for fuel in lamps, as a substitute for oil. The Butter Tower of Rouen Cathedral was erected in the early 16th century when Archbishop Georges d'Amboise authorized the burning of butter during Lent, instead of oil, which was scarce at the time.[40]
Across northern Europe, butter was sometimes packed into barrels (firkins) and buried in peat bogs, perhaps for years. Such "bog butter" would develop a strong flavor as it aged, but remain edible, in large part because of the cool, airless, antiseptic and acidic environment of a peat bog. Firkins of such buried butter are a common archaeological find in Ireland; the National Museum of Ireland – Archaeology has some containing "a grayish cheese-like substance, partially hardened, not much like butter, and quite free from putrefaction." The practice was most common in Ireland in the 11th–14th centuries; it ended entirely before the 19th century.[39]
Industrialization
Until the 19th century, the vast majority of butter was made by hand, on farms. Butter also provided extra income to farm families. They used wood presses with carved decoration to press butter into pucks or small bricks to sell at nearby markets or general stores. The decoration identified the farm that produced the butter. This practice continued until production was mechanized and butter was produced in less decorative stick form.[41]
Like Ireland, France became well known for its butter, particularly in Normandy and Brittany. Butter consumption in London in the mid-1840s was estimated at 15,357 tons annually.[42]
The first butter factories appeared in the United States in the early 1860s, after the successful introduction of cheese factories a decade earlier. In the late 1870s, the centrifugalcream separator was introduced, marketed most successfully by Swedish engineer Carl Gustaf Patrik de Laval.[43]
Gustaf de Laval's centrifugal cream separator sped up the butter-making process.
In 1920, Otto Hunziker authored The Butter Industry, Prepared for Factory, School and Laboratory,[44] a well-known text in the industry that enjoyed at least three editions (1920, 1927, 1940). As part of the efforts of the American Dairy Science Association, Hunziker and others published articles regarding: causes of tallowiness[45] (an odor defect, distinct from rancidity, a taste defect); mottles[46] (an aesthetic issue related to uneven color); introduced salts;[47] the impact of creamery metals[48] and liquids;[49] and acidity measurement.[50] These and other ADSA publications helped standardize practices internationally.
Butter consumption declined in most western nations during the 20th century, mainly because of the rising popularity of margarine, which is less expensive and, until recent years, was perceived as being healthier. In the United States, margarine consumption overtook butter during the 1950s,[51] and it is still the case today that more margarine than butter is eaten in the U.S. and the EU.[52]
Worldwide production
World butter production (cow's milk) and main producing countries in 2018
In 1997, India produced 1,470,000 metric tons (1,620,000 short tons) of butter, most of which was consumed domestically.[53] Second in production was the United States (522,000t or 575,000 short tons), followed by France (466,000t or 514,000 short tons), Germany (442,000t or 487,000 short tons), and New Zealand (307,000t or 338,000 short tons). France ranks first in per capita butter consumption with 8kg per capita per year.[54] In terms of absolute consumption, Germany was second after India, using 578,000 metric tons (637,000 short tons) of butter in 1997, followed by France (528,000t or 582,000 short tons), Russia (514,000t or 567,000 short tons), and the United States (505,000t or 557,000 short tons). New Zealand, Australia, Denmark and Ukraine are among the few nations that export a significant percentage of the butter they produce.[55]
Different varieties are found around the world. Smen is a spiced Moroccan clarified butter, buried in the ground and aged for months or years. A similar product is maltash of the Hunza Valley, where cow and yak butter can be buried for decades, and is used at events such as weddings.[56]Yak butter is a specialty in Tibet; tsampa, barley flour mixed with yak butter, is a staple food. Butter tea is consumed in the Himalayan regions of Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal and India. It consists of tea served with intensely flavored—or "rancid"—yak butter and salt. In African and Asian nations, butter is sometimes traditionally made from sour milk rather than cream. It can take several hours of churning to produce workable butter grains from fermented milk.[57]
Storage
Normal butter softens to a spreadable consistency around 15°C (60°F), well above refrigerator temperatures. The "butter compartment" found in many refrigerators may be one of the warmer sections inside, but it still leaves butter quite hard. Until recently, many refrigerators sold in New Zealand featured a "butter conditioner", a compartment kept warmer than the rest of the refrigerator—but still cooler than room temperature—with a small heater.[58] Keeping butter tightly wrapped delays rancidity, which is hastened by exposure to light or air, and also helps prevent it from picking up other odors. Wrapped butter has a shelf life of several months at refrigerator temperatures.[59] Butter can also be frozen to extend its storage life.[60]
Packaging
United States
In the United States, butter has traditionally been made into small, rectangular blocks by means of a pair of wooden butter paddles. It is usually produced in 4-ounce (1⁄4lb; 110g) sticks that are individually wrapped in waxed or foiled paper, and sold as a 1 pound (0.45kg) package of 4 sticks. This practice is believed to have originated in 1907, when Swift and Company began packaging butter in this manner for mass distribution.[61] Due to historical differences in butter printers (machines that cut and package butter),[62] 4-ounce sticks are commonly produced in two different shapes:
The dominant shape east of the Rocky Mountains is the Elgin, or Eastern-pack shape, named for a dairy in Elgin, Illinois. The sticks measure 4+3⁄4 by 1+1⁄4 by 1+1⁄4 inches (121mm ×32mm ×32mm) and are typically sold stacked two by two in elongated cube-shaped boxes.[62]
West of the Rocky Mountains, butter printers standardized on a different shape that is now referred to as the Western-pack shape. These butter sticks measure 3+1⁄4 by 1+1⁄2 by 1+1⁄2 inches (83mm ×38mm ×38mm)[63] and are usually sold with four sticks packed side-by-side in a flat, rectangular box.[62]
Most butter dishes are designed for Elgin-style butter sticks.[62]
Elsewhere
Outside of the United States, butter is measured for sale by mass (rather than by volume or unit/stick), and is often sold in 250g (8.8oz) and 500g (18oz) packages.
Bulk packaging
Since the 1940s,[64] but more commonly the 1960s,[65] butter pats have been individually wrapped and packed in cardboard boxes. Prior to use of cardboard, butter was bulk packed in wood. The earliest discoveries used firkins. From about 1882 wooden boxes were used, as the introduction of refrigeration on ships brought about longer transit times. Butter boxes were generally made with woods whose resin would not taint the butter,[64] such as sycamore,[65]kahikatea,[66]hoop pine,[67]maple, or spruce.[64] They commonly weighed a firkin at 56 pounds (25kg).[64]
Butter has been considered indispensable in French cuisine since the 17th century.[68] Chefs and cooks have extolled its importance: Fernand Point said "Donnez-moi du beurre, encore du beurre, toujours du beurre!" ('Give me butter, more butter, still more butter!').[69]Julia Child said, "With enough butter, anything is good."[70]
Mixing melted butter with chocolate to make a brownie
Melted butter plays an important role in the preparation of sauces, notably in French cuisine. Beurre noisette (hazelnut butter) and Beurre noir (black butter) are sauces of melted butter cooked until the milk solids and sugars have turned golden or dark brown; they are often finished with an addition of vinegar or lemon juice.[20]:36Hollandaise and béarnaise sauces are emulsions of egg yolk and melted butter. Hollandaise and béarnaise sauces are stabilized with the powerful emulsifiers in the egg yolks, but butter itself contains enough emulsifiers—mostly remnants of the fat globule membranes—to form a stable emulsion on its own.[20]:635–636
Beurre blanc (white butter) is made by whisking butter into reduced vinegar or wine, forming an emulsion with the texture of thick cream. Beurre monté (prepared butter) is melted but still emulsified butter; it lends its name to the practice of "mounting" a sauce with butter: whisking cold butter into any water-based sauce at the end of cooking, giving the sauce a thicker body and a glossy shine—as well as a buttery taste.[20]:632
Butter is used for sautéing and frying, although its milk solids brown and burn above 150°C (250°F)—a rather low temperature for most applications. The smoke point of butterfat is around 200°C (400°F), so clarified butter or ghee is better suited to frying.[20]:37
Butter fills several roles in baking, including making possible a range of textures, making chemical leavenings work better, tenderizing proteins, and enhancing the tastes of other ingredients. It is used in a similar manner to other solid fats like lard, suet, or shortening, but has a flavor that may better complement sweet baked goods.
Compound butters are mixtures of butter and other ingredients used to flavor various dishes.
Butter (salted during manufacturing) is 16% water, 81% fat, and 1% protein, with negligible carbohydrates (provided from table source as 100 g). Saturated fat is 51% of total fats in butter (table source).
In a reference amount of 100g (3.5oz), butter supplies 717 calories and 76% of the Daily Value (DV) for vitamin A, 15% DV for vitamin E, and 28% DV for sodium, with no other micronutrients in significant content (table). In 100 grams, salted butter contains 215 mg of cholesterol (table source).
As butter is essentially just the milk fat, it contains only traces of lactose, so moderate consumption of butter is not a problem for lactose intolerant people.[73] People with milk allergies may still need to avoid butter, which contains enough of the allergy-causing proteins to cause reactions.[74]
A 2015 study concluded that "hypercholesterolemic people should keep their consumption of butter to a minimum, whereas moderate butter intake may be considered part of the diet in the normocholesterolemic population."[91]
A meta-analysis and systematic review published in 2016 found relatively small or insignificant overall associations of a dose of 14g/day of butter with mortality and cardiovascular disease, and consumption was insignificantly inversely associated with incidence of diabetes. The study states that "findings do not support a need for major emphasis in dietary guidelines on either increasing or decreasing butter consumption."[92][93]
Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-fat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, eventually rises to the top. In the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called "separators". In many countries, it is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content. It can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets, and contains high levels of saturated fat.
Dairy products or milk products, also known as lacticinia, are food products made from milk. The most common dairy animals are cow, water buffalo, nanny goat, and ewe. Dairy products include common grocery store food around the world such as yogurt, cheese, milk and butter. A facility that produces dairy products is a dairy. Dairy products are consumed worldwide to varying degrees. Some people avoid some or all dairy products because of lactose intolerance, veganism, environmental concerns, other health reasons or beliefs.
Milk is a white liquid food produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source of nutrition for young mammals before they are able to digest solid food. Milk contains many nutrients, including calcium and protein, as well as lactose and saturated fat. Immune factors and immune-modulating components in milk contribute to milk immunity. Early-lactation milk, which is called colostrum, contains antibodies and immune-modulating components that strengthen the immune system against many diseases. The US CDC agency recommends that children over the age of 12 months should have two servings of dairy (milk) products a day, and more than six billion people worldwide consume milk and milk products.
Margarine is a spread used for flavoring, baking, and cooking. It is most often used as a substitute for butter. Although originally made from animal fats, most margarine consumed today is made from vegetable oil. The spread was originally named oleomargarine from Latin for oleum and Greek margarite. The name was later shortened to margarine.
Whey is the liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained. It is a byproduct of the manufacturing of cheese or casein and has several commercial uses. Sweet whey is a byproduct resulting from the manufacture of rennet types of hard cheese, like cheddar or Swiss cheese. Acid whey is a byproduct brought out during the making of acid types of dairy products, such as strained yogurt.
Ghee is a type of clarified butter, originating from the Indian subcontinent. It is commonly used for cooking, as a traditional medicine, and for Hindu religious rituals.
Buttermilk is a fermented dairy drink. Traditionally, it was the liquid left behind after churning butter out of cultured cream. As most modern butter in Western countries is not made with cultured cream but uncultured sweet cream, most modern buttermilk in Western countries is cultured separately. It is common in warm climates where unrefrigerated milk sours quickly.
Roux is a mixture of flour and fat cooked together and used to thicken sauces. Roux is typically made from equal parts of flour and fat by weight. The flour is added to the melted fat or oil on the stove top, blended until smooth, and cooked to the desired level of brownness. A roux can be white, blond (darker) or brown. Butter, bacon drippings or lard are commonly used fats. Roux is used as a thickening agent for gravy, sauces, soups and stews. It provides the base for a dish, and other ingredients are added after the roux is complete.
Beurre blanc or Beurre Nantais is a warm emulsified butter sauce made with a reduction of vinegar and/or white wine and shallots into which softened whole butter is whisked in off the heat to prevent separation. The small amount of emulsifiers naturally found in butter, including a trace of lecithin, is used to form an oil-in-water emulsion. Although similar to hollandaise in concept, it is considered neither a classic leading nor compound sauce. This sauce originates in the cuisine of the Loire-Atlantique department.
Powdered milk, also called milk powder, dried milk, or dry milk, is a manufactured dairy product made by evaporating milk to dryness. One purpose of drying milk is to preserve it; milk powder has a far longer shelf life than liquid milk and does not need to be refrigerated, due to its low moisture content. Another purpose is to reduce its bulk for the economy of transportation. Powdered milk and dairy products include such items as dry whole milk, nonfat (skimmed) dry milk, dry buttermilk, dry whey products and dry dairy blends. Many exported dairy products conform to standards laid out in Codex Alimentarius.
Beurre noisette is a type of warm sauce used in French cuisine. It can accompany savoury foods, such as winter vegetables, pasta, fish, omelettes, and chicken. It has become a popular ingredient in other cultures as well, such as in contemporary American cuisine or the traditional American chocolate chip cookie. It is widely used in making French pastry. It has a deep yellow, almost brown, colour and a nutty scent and flavour from the heating process.
Butterfat or milkfat is the fatty portion of milk. Milk and cream are often sold according to the amount of butterfat they contain.
A creamery or cheese factory is a place where milk and cream are processed and where butter and cheese is produced. Cream is separated from whole milk; pasteurization is done to the skimmed milk and cream separately. Whole milk for sale has had some cream returned to the skimmed milk.
The Babcock test is an inexpensive and practical procedure to determine the fat content of milk. It is named after its developer, Stephen M. Babcock (1843–1931), professor at the University of Wisconsin.
The dry matter or dry weight is a measure of the mass of a completely dried substance.
Creole cream cheese is a form of farmer cheese that is traditional in the New Orleans area of Louisiana in the United States. It is made from skim milk, buttermilk and rennet, has a mild, slightly tart, slightly sweet taste, and is frequently mixed with cream, sugar and fruit and served as a dessert. It is often used to make Creole cream cheese ice cream.
Clarified butter is butter from which all milk solids have been removed. The result is a clear, yellow butter that can be heated to higher temperatures before burning.
The fat content of milk is the proportion of milk, by weight, made up by butterfat. The fat content, particularly of cow's milk, is modified to make a variety of products. The fat content of milk is usually stated on the container, and the color of the label or milk bottle top varied to enable quick recognition.
Lard is a semi-solid white fat product obtained by rendering the fatty tissue of a pig. It is distinguished from tallow, a similar product derived from fat of cattle or sheep.
References
↑ Institute of Medicine. Committee on Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake; Henney, Jane E.; Taylor, Christine Lewis; Boon, Caitlin S. (2010). "4: Preservation and Physical Property Roles of Sodium in Foods". Strategies to reduce sodium intake in the United States. Washington, D.C. ISBN978-0-309-14805-4. OCLC676698420. Archived from the original on 9 May 2022. Retrieved 14 June 2022.{{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
↑ Charles Thom, Walter Fisk, The Book of Cheese, 1918, reprinted in 2007 as ISBN1429010746, p. 296
↑ Doane, Charles Francis (12 November 2017). "Whey butter". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry. Archived from the original on 28 May 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2017– via Internet Archive.
↑ Soyer, Alexis (1977) [1853]. The Pantropheon or a History of Food and its Preparation in Ancient Times. Wisbech, Cambs.: Paddington Press. p.172. ISBN978-0-448-22976-8.
↑ Most nations produce and consume the bulk of their butter domestically.
↑ "Envoyé spécial". francetv info. Archived from the original on 18 December 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
↑ Statistics from USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (1999). Dairy: Word Markets and TradeArchived 23 September 2005 at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved 1 December 2005. The export and import figures do not include trade between nations within the European Union, and there are inconsistencies regarding the inclusion of clarified butterfat products (explaining why New Zealand is shown exporting more butter in 1997 than was produced).
↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN978-0-309-48834-1. PMID30844154. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
↑ From data here Archived 24 December 2005 at the Wayback Machine , one teaspoon of butter contains 0.03grams of lactose; a cup of milk contains 400 times that amount.
Crawford, R. J. M.; etal. (1990). The Technology of Traditional Milk Products in Developing Countries. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN978-92-5-102899-5. Full text onlineArchived 6 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine
"Butter", Food Resource, College of Health and Human Sciences, Oregon State University, 20 February 2007. – FAQ, links, and extensive bibliography of food science articles on butter.
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