Peasant

Last updated

Young women offer berries to visitors to their izba home, 1909. Those who had been serfs among the Russian peasantry were officially emancipated in 1861. Photograph by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky. Prokudin-Gorskii-08.jpg
Young women offer berries to visitors to their izba home, 1909. Those who had been serfs among the Russian peasantry were officially emancipated in 1861. Photograph by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky.

A peasant is a pre-industrial agricultural laborer or a farmer with limited land-ownership, especially one living in the Middle Ages under feudalism and paying rent, tax, fees, or services to a landlord. [1] [2] In Europe, three classes of peasants existed: non-free slaves, semi-free serfs, and free tenants. Peasants might hold title to land outright (fee simple), or by any of several forms of land tenure, among them socage, quit-rent, leasehold, and copyhold. [3]

Contents

In some contexts, "peasant" has a pejorative meaning, even when referring to farm laborers. [4] As early as in 13th-century Germany, the concept of "peasant" could imply "rustic" as well as "robber", as the English term villain [5] /villein. [6] [7] In 21st-century English, the word "peasant" can mean "an ignorant, rude, or unsophisticated person". [8] The word rose to renewed popularity in the 1940s–1960s [9] as a collective term, often referring to rural populations of developing countries in general, as the "semantic successor to 'native', incorporating all its condescending and racial overtones". [4]

The word peasantry is commonly used in a non-pejorative sense as a collective noun for the rural population in the poor and developing countries of the world.[ citation needed ] Via Campesina, an organization claiming to represent the rights of about 200 million farm-workers around the world, self-defines as an "International Peasant's Movement" as of 2019. [10] The United Nations and its Human Rights Council prominently uses the term "peasant" in a non-pejorative sense, as in the UN Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural Areas adopted in 2018. In general English-language literature, the use of the word "peasant" has steadily declined since about 1970. [11]

Etymology

A farm in 1794 1794 Morgenstern Bauernhof anagoria.JPG
A farm in 1794

The word "peasant" is derived from the 15th-century French word païsant, meaning one from the pays, or countryside; ultimately from the Latin pagus, or outlying administrative district. [12]

Social position

Finnish Savonian farmers at a cottage in early 19th century; by Pehr Hillestrom and J. F. Martin Farmers in a cottage in Savonia, Finland (25183314403).jpg
Finnish Savonian farmers at a cottage in early 19th century; by Pehr Hilleström and J. F. Martin

Peasants typically made up the majority of the agricultural labour force in a pre-industrial society. The majority of the people—according to one estimate 85% of the population—in the Middle Ages were peasants. [13]

Though "peasant" is a word of loose application, once a market economy had taken root, the term peasant proprietors was frequently used to describe the traditional rural population in countries where smallholders farmed much of the land. More generally, the word "peasant" is sometimes used to refer pejoratively to those considered to be "lower class", perhaps defined by poorer education and/or a lower income.[ citation needed ]

Medieval European peasants

The open field system of agriculture dominated most of Europe during medieval times and endured until the nineteenth century in many areas. Under this system, peasants lived on a manor presided over by a lord or a bishop of the church. Peasants paid rent or labor services to the lord in exchange for their right to cultivate the land. Fallowed land, pastures, forests, and wasteland were held in common. The open field system required cooperation among the peasants of the manor. [14] It was gradually replaced by individual ownership and management of land.

The relative position of peasants in Western Europe improved greatly after the Black Death had reduced the population of medieval Europe in the mid-14th century, resulting in more land for the survivors and making labor more scarce. In the wake of this disruption to the established order, it became more productive for many laborers to demand wages and other alternative forms of compensation, which ultimately led to the development of widespread literacy and the enormous social and intellectual changes of the Enlightenment.

The evolution of ideas in an environment of relatively widespread literacy laid the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution, which enabled mechanically and chemically augmented agricultural production while simultaneously increasing the demand for factory workers in cities, who became what Karl Marx called the proletariat. The trend toward individual ownership of land, typified in England by Enclosure, displaced many peasants from the land and compelled them, often unwillingly, to become urban factory-workers, who came to occupy the socio-economic stratum formerly the preserve of the medieval peasants.

This process happened in an especially pronounced and truncated way in Eastern Europe. Lacking any catalysts for change in the 14th century, Eastern European peasants largely continued upon the original medieval path until the 18th and 19th centuries. Serfdom was abolished in Russia in 1861, and while many peasants would remain in areas where their family had farmed for generations, the changes did allow for the buying and selling of lands traditionally held by peasants, and for landless ex-peasants to move to the cities. [15] Even before emancipation in 1861, serfdom was on the wane in Russia. The proportion of serfs within the empire had gradually decreased "from 45–50 percent at the end of the eighteenth century, to 37.7 percent in 1858." [16]

Early modern Germany

"Feiernde Bauern" ("Celebrating Peasants"), artist unknown, 18th or 19th century Unbekannter Meister 18-19 Jh Feiernde Bauern.jpg
"Feiernde Bauern" ("Celebrating Peasants"), artist unknown, 18th or 19th century

In Germany, peasants continued to center their lives in the village well into the 19th century. They belonged to a corporate body and helped to manage the community resources and to monitor community life. [17] In the East they had the status of serfs bound permanently to parcels of land. A peasant is called a "Bauer" in German and "Bur" in Low German (pronounced in English like boor). [18]

In most of Germany, farming was handled by tenant farmers who paid rents and obligatory services to the landlord—typically a nobleman. [19] Peasant leaders supervised the fields and ditches and grazing rights, maintained public order and morals, and supported a village court which handled minor offenses. Inside the family the patriarch made all the decisions, and tried to arrange advantageous marriages for his children. Much of the villages' communal life centered on church services and holy days. In Prussia, the peasants drew lots to choose conscripts required by the army. The noblemen handled external relationships and politics for the villages under their control, and were not typically involved in daily activities or decisions. [20]

France

Information about the complexities of the French Revolution, especially the fast-changing scene in Paris, reached isolated areas through both official announcements and long-established oral networks. Peasants responded differently to different sources of information. The limits on political knowledge in these areas depended more on how much peasants chose to know than on bad roads or illiteracy. Historian Jill Maciak concludes that peasants "were neither subservient, reactionary, nor ignorant." [21]

In his seminal book Peasants into Frenchmen: the Modernization of Rural France, 1880–1914 (1976), historian Eugen Weber traced the modernization of French villages and argued that rural France went from backward and isolated to modern and possessing a sense of French nationhood during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. [22] He emphasized the roles of railroads, republican schools, and universal military conscription. He based his findings on school records, migration patterns, military-service documents and economic trends. Weber argued that until 1900 or so a sense of French nationhood was weak in the provinces. Weber then looked at how the policies of the Third Republic created a sense of French nationality in rural areas. [23] The book was widely praised, but some [24] argued that a sense of Frenchness existed in the provinces before 1870.

Chinese farmers

A Chinese painting depicting an agricultural scene probably during the Ming dynasty Rice farming.jpg
A Chinese painting depicting an agricultural scene probably during the Ming dynasty
Chinese peasants in Kunming China from the Eyes of the Flying Tigers 1944-1945 27.jpg
Chinese peasants in Kunming

Farmers in China have been sometimes referred to as "peasants" in English-language sources. However, the traditional term for farmer, nongfu (农夫), simply refers to "farmer" or "agricultural worker". In the 19th century, Japanese intellectuals reinvented the Chinese terms fengjian (封建) for "feudalism" and nongmin (农民), or "farming people", terms used in the description of feudal Japanese society. [25] These terms created a negative image of Chinese farmers by making a class distinction where one had not previously existed. [25] Anthropologist Myron Cohen considers these terms to be neologisms that represented a cultural and political invention. He writes: [26]

This divide represented a radical departure from tradition: F. W. Mote and others have shown how especially during the later imperial era (Ming and Qing dynasties), China was notable for the cultural, social, political, and economic interpenetration of city and countryside. But the term nongmin did enter China in association with Marxist and non-Marxist Western perceptions of the "peasant," thereby putting the full weight of the Western heritage to use in a new and sometimes harshly negative representation of China's rural population. Likewise, with this development Westerners found it all the more "natural" to apply their own historically derived images of the peasant to what they observed or were told in China. The idea of the peasant remains powerfully entrenched in the Western perception of China to this very day.

Writers in English mostly used the term "farmers" until the 1920s, when the term peasant came to predominate, implying that China was feudal, ready for revolution, like Europe before the French Revolution. [27] This Western use of the term suggests that China is stagnant, "medieval", underdeveloped, and held back by its rural population. [28] Cohen writes that the "imposition of the historically burdened Western contrasts of town and country, shopkeeper and peasant, or merchant and landlord, serves only to distort the realities of the Chinese economic tradition". [29]

Latin American farmers

In Latin America, the term "peasant" is translated to "Campesino" (from campo—country person), but the meaning has changed over time. While most Campesinos before the 20th century were in equivalent status to peasants—they usually did not own land and had to make payments to or were in an employment position towards a landlord (the hacienda system), most Latin American countries saw one or more extensive land reforms in the 20th century. The land reforms of Latin America were more comprehensive initiatives [30] that redistributed lands from large landholders to former peasants [31] —farm workers and tenant farmers. Hence, many Campesinos in Latin America today are closer smallholders who own their land and do not pay rent to a landlord, rather than peasants who do not own land.

The Catholic Bishops of Paraguay have asserted that "Every campesino has a natural right to possess a reasonable allotment of land where he can establish his home, work for [the] subsistence of his family and a secure life". [32]

Historiography

Portrait sculpture of 18th-century French peasants by artist George S. Stuart, in the permanent collection of the Museum of Ventura County, Ventura, California Peasants 3French Best.jpg
Portrait sculpture of 18th-century French peasants by artist George S. Stuart, in the permanent collection of the Museum of Ventura County, Ventura, California

In medieval Europe society was theorized as being organized into three estates: those who work, those who pray, and those who fight. [33] The Annales School of 20th-century French historians emphasized the importance of peasants. Its leader Fernand Braudel devoted the first volume—called The Structures of Everyday Life—of his major work, Civilization and Capitalism 15th–18th Century to the largely silent and invisible world that existed below the market economy.

Other research in the field of peasant studies was promoted by Florian Znaniecki and Fei Xiaotong, and in the post-1945 studies of the "great tradition" and the "little tradition" in the work of Robert Redfield. In the 1960s, anthropologists and historians began to rethink the role of peasant revolt in world history and in their own disciplines. Peasant revolution was seen as a Third World response to capitalism and imperialism. [34]

The anthropologist Eric Wolf, for instance, drew on the work of earlier scholars in the Marxist tradition such as Daniel Thorner, who saw the rural population as a key element in the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Wolf and a group of scholars [35] [36] [37] [38] criticized both Marx and the field of Modernization theorists for treating peasants as lacking the ability to take action. [39] James C. Scott's field observations in Malaysia convinced him that villagers were active participants in their local politics even though they were forced to use indirect methods. Many of these activist scholars looked back to the peasant movement in India and to the theories of the revolution in China led by Mao Zedong starting in the 1920s. The anthropologist Myron Cohen, however, asked why the rural population in China were called "peasants" rather than "farmers", a distinction he called political rather than scientific. [40] One important outlet for their scholarly work and theory was The Journal of Peasant Studies .

See also

The Peasant Wedding, by Flemish painter Pieter Brueghel the Elder, 1567 or 1568 Pieter Bruegel the Elder - Peasant Wedding - Google Art Project 2.jpg
The Peasant Wedding , by Flemish painter Pieter Brueghel the Elder, 1567 or 1568
"Peasants in a Tavern" by Adriaen van Ostade (c. 1635), at the Alte Pinakothek, Munich Adriaen van Ostade - Peasants in a Tavern.jpg
"Peasants in a Tavern" by Adriaen van Ostade (c. 1635), at the Alte Pinakothek, Munich
Monument dedicated to Serbian peasant, Jagodina Wiki Sumadija XI Spomenik srpskom seljaku 970.jpg
Monument dedicated to Serbian peasant, Jagodina

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Feudalism</span> Legal and military structure in medieval Europe

Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was a combination of legal, economic, military, cultural, and political customs that flourished in medieval Europe from the 9th to 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manorialism</span> Economic, political, and judicial institution during the Middle Ages in Europe

Manorialism, also known as seigneurialism, the manor system or manorial system, was the method of land ownership in parts of Europe, notably France and later England, during the Middle Ages. Its defining features included a large, sometimes fortified manor house in which the lord of the manor and his dependants lived and administered a rural estate, and a population of labourers or serfs who worked the surrounding land to support themselves and the lord. These labourers fulfilled their obligations with labour time or in-kind produce at first, and later by cash payment as commercial activity increased. Manorialism was part of the feudal system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Serfdom</span> Status of peasants under feudalism

Serfdom was the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism, and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude with similarities to and differences from slavery. It developed during late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages in Europe and lasted in some countries until the mid-19th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Via Campesina</span> International agricultural organization

La Vía Campesina is an international farmers organization founded in 1993 in Mons, Belgium, formed by 182 organisations in 81 countries, and describing itself as "an international movement which coordinates peasant organizations of small and middle-scale producers, agricultural workers, rural women, and indigenous communities from Asia, Africa, America, and Europe".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corvée</span> Form of intermittent, unpaid, unfree labour

Corvée is a form of unpaid forced labour that is intermittent in nature, lasting for limited periods of time, typically only a certain number of days' work each year. Statute labour is a corvée imposed by a state for the purposes of public works. As such it represents a form of levy (taxation). Unlike other forms of levy, such as a tithe, a corvée does not require the population to have land, crops or cash.

Examples of feudalism are helpful to fully understand feudalism and feudal society. Feudalism was practiced in many different ways, depending on location and period, thus a high-level encompassing conceptual definition does not always provide a reader with the intimate understanding that detailed historical examples provide.

Folwark is a Polish word for a primarily serfdom-based farm and agricultural enterprise, often very large.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Serfdom in Russia</span> Unfree peasant class of Tsarist Russia

In tsarist Russia, the term serf meant an unfree peasant who, unlike a slave, historically could be sold only together with the land to which they were "attached". However, this stopped being a requirement by the 19th century, and serfs were practically indistinguishable from slaves. Contemporary legal documents, such as Russkaya Pravda, distinguished several degrees of feudal dependency of peasants. While another form of slavery in Russia, kholopstvo, was ended by Peter I in 1723, serfdom was abolished only by Alexander II's emancipation reform of 1861; nevertheless, in times past, the state allowed peasants to sue for release from serfdom under certain conditions, and also took measures against abuses of landlord power.

The Robot Patent is an English-language scholarly term for the imperial decrees (patents) in the 1700s abolishing compulsory labor (robot) of serfs, issued by Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, who had carried out a register of all land with a division between peasant and noble holdings. Joseph II outlawed the buying of 'rustic' land by the nobility and at the same time giving the rusticalists security of tenure. His motive was to prevent the increase in 'dominical' land, which paid fewer taxes to the government. This led to the survival of the peasantry, with rustic land still having the robot. In 1789 it was abolished by Joseph II, but Leopold II restored it when his brother Joseph II died in 1790. The abolition of the Robot during the Revolutions of 1848 broke the last legal tie which held the peasants to the land, and was seen as a great victory by the peasants.

The Serfdom Patent of 1 November 1781 aimed to abolish aspects of the traditional serfdom system of the Habsburg monarchy through the establishment of basic civil liberties for the serfs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Villein</span> Type of social status in medieval Europe

A villein is a class of serf tied to the land under the feudal system. As part of the contract with the lord of the manor, they were expected to spend some of their time working on the lord's fields in return for land. Villeins existed under a number of legal restrictions that differentiated them from freemen, and could not leave without his lord's permission. Generally, villeins held their status not by birth but by the land they held, and it was also possible for them to gain manumission from their lords. The villeinage system largely died out in England in 1500, with some forms of villeinage being in use in France until 1789.

The serfdom in Tibet controversy is a prolonged public disagreement over the extent and nature of serfdom in Tibet prior to the annexation of Tibet into the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1951. The debate is political in nature, with some arguing that the ultimate goal on the Chinese side is to legitimize Chinese control of the territory now known as the Tibet Autonomous Region or Xizang Autonomous Region, and others arguing that the ultimate goal on the Western side is to weaken or undermine the Chinese state. The argument is that Tibetan culture, government, and society were feudal in nature prior to the PRC takeover of Tibet and that this only changed due to PRC policy in the region. The pro-Tibetan independence movement argument is that this is a misrepresentation of history created as a political tool in order to justify the Sinicization of Tibet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Georgian feudalism</span>

Georgian feudalism, or patronkmoba, as the system of personal dependence or vassalage in ancient and medieval Georgia is referred to, arose from a tribal-dynastic organization of society upon which was imposed, by royal authority, an official hierarchy of regional governors, local officials and subordinates. It is thought to have its roots into the ancient Georgian, or Iberian, society of Hellenistic period.

The Brenner debate was a major debate amongst Marxist historians during the late 1970s and early 1980s, regarding the origins of capitalism. The debate began with Robert Brenner's 1976 journal article "Agrarian class structure and economic development in pre-industrial Europe", published in the influential historical journal Past & Present.

Peasant economics is an area of economics in which a wide variety of economic approaches ranging from the neoclassical to the marxist are used to examine the political economy of the peasantry. The defining feature of the peasants are that they are typically seen to be only partly integrated into the market economy -— an economy which, in societies with a significant peasant population, is typically found to have many imperfect, incomplete or missing markets. Peasant economics treats peasants as something different from other farmers as they are not assumed to be simply small profit maximizing farmers; by contrast, peasant economics covers a wide range of different theories of peasant household behavior. These include various assumptions about the maximization of profits, risk aversion, drudgery aversion, and sharecropping. The assumptions, logic, and predictions of these theories are examined and the impact of subsistence is typically found to have important implications in terms of producers decisions about supply, consumption and price. Chayanov was an early proponent of the importance of understanding peasant behaviour arguing that peasants would work as hard as they needed in order to meet their subsistence needs, but had no incentive beyond those needs and therefore would slow and stop working once they were met. This principle, the consumption-labour-balance principle, implies that the peasant household will increase its work until it meets (balances) the needs (consumption) of the household. A possible implication of this view of peasant societies is that they will not develop without some external, added factor. Peasant economics has been seen as being an important area of study by some development economists, agricultural sociologists, and anthropologists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Serfdom in Poland</span> Historical system of labour in Poland from the Middle Ages to the 19th century

Serfdom in Poland was a legal and economic system that bound the peasant population to hereditary plots of land owned by the szlachta, or Polish nobility. Emerging from the 12th century, this system became firmly established by the 16th century, significantly shaping the social, economic, and political landscape of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Serfdom has a long history that dates to ancient times.

State peasants were a special social estate (class) of peasantry in 18th–19th century Russia, the number of which in some periods reached half of the agricultural population. In contrast to private serfs, state peasants were considered personally free, although their freedom of movement was restricted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">French peasants</span> Largest socioeconomic class until the mid-1900s

French peasants were the largest socio-economic group in France until the mid-20th century. The word peasant, while having no universally accepted meaning, is used here to describe subsistence farming throughout the Middle Ages, often smallholders or those paying rent to landlords, and rural workers in general. As industrialization developed, some peasants became wealthier than others and drove investment in agriculture. Rising inequality and financial management in France during the late 18th century eventually motivated peasants to revolt and destroy the feudal system. Today peasants could no longer be said to exist as an economic or social group in France, although many attempts have been made to honor and preserve this traditional way of life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social changes in 18th to 19th-century Prussia</span>

Prussia underwent major social change between the mid-17th and mid-18th centuries as the nobility declined as the traditional aristocracy struggled to compete with the rising merchant class, which developed into a new Bourgeoisie middle class, while the emancipation of the serfs granted the rural peasantry land purchasing rights and freedom of movement, and a series of agrarian reforms in northwestern Germany abolished feudal obligations and divided up feudal land, giving rise to wealthier peasants and paved the way for a more efficient rural economy.

References

  1. ↑ "peasant". Wiktionary. 20 February 2024.
  2. ↑ "peasant". Merriam-Webster online. 28 March 2024.
  3. ↑ Webster, Hutton (2004). Early European History. Kessinger Publishing. p. 440. ISBN   978-1-4191-1711-4 . Retrieved 3 June 2012.
  4. 1 2 Hill, Polly (1982). Dry Grain Farming Families: Hausaland (Nigeria) and Karnataka (India) Compared. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0521271028.
  5. ↑ "villain" . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  6. ↑ "villein" . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  7. ↑ Edelman, Marc (2013). "What is a peasant? What are peasantries? A briefing paper on issues of definition" (PDF). United Nations Human Rights. Retrieved 11 September 2019. Very early on, both the English 'peasant,' the French 'paysan' and similar terms sometimes connoted 'rustic,' 'ignorant,' 'stupid,' 'crass' and 'rude,' among many other pejorative terms. [...] The word could also imply criminality, as in thirteenth-century Germany where '"peasant"' meant 'villain, rustic, devil, robber, brigand and looter.'
  8. ↑ "peasant | Definition of peasant in English by Lexico Dictionaries". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Archived from the original on 12 July 2019. Retrieved 12 July 2019. 1 A poor farmer of low social status who owns or rents a small piece of land for cultivation (chiefly in historical use or with reference to subsistence farming in poorer countries)
    1.1 informal, derogatory An ignorant, rude, or unsophisticated person; a person of low social status.
  9. ↑ "Google Ngram Viewer". books.google.com. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
  10. ↑ "Via Campesina – Globalizing hope, globalizing the struggle !". Via Campesina English. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
  11. ↑ "Google Ngram Viewer". books.google.com. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
  12. ↑ Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. pp. 846, 866. ISBN   978-0877795094
  13. ↑ Alixe Bovey (30 April 2015). "Peasants and their role in rural life". The British Library. British Library. Archived from the original on 23 March 2022. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
  14. ↑ Gies, Frances and Gies, Joseph (1989). Life in a Medieval Village New York: Harper. pp. 12–18. ISBN   978-0060920463
  15. ↑ Moon, David (2001) The abolition of serfdom in Russia, 1762–1907. Routledge. pp. 98–114. ISBN   9780582294868
  16. ↑ Pipes, Richard (1995) [1974]. Russia Under the Old Regime: Second edition. Penguin Publishing. p. 163. ISBN   978-0140247688.
  17. ↑ Sagarra, Eda (1977) A Social History of Germany: 1648–1914. Methuen young books. pp. 140–154. ISBN   978-0416776201
  18. ↑ Wedgwood, Hensleigh (1855). "English Etymologies". Transactions of the Philological Society (8): 117–118.
  19. ↑ The monasteries of Bavaria, which controlled 56% of the land, were broken up by the government, and sold off around 1803. Nipperdey, Thomas (1996) Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck: 1800–1866. Princeton Univ Press. p. 59. ISBN   978-0691636115
  20. ↑ For details on the life of a representative peasant farmer, who migrated in 1710 to Pennsylvania, see Bernd Kratz, he was a farmer, "Hans Stauffer: A Farmer in Germany before his Emigration to Pennsylvania", Genealogist, Fall 2008, Vol. 22 Issue 2, pp. 131–169
  21. ↑ Maciak, Jill (2001). "Of News and Networks: The Communication of Political Information in the Rural South-West during the French Revolution". French History. 15 (3): 273–306. doi:10.1093/fh/15.3.273.
  22. ↑ Amato, Joseph A. (1992). "Eugen Weber's France". Journal of Social History. 25 (4): 879–882. doi:10.1353/jsh/25.4.879. JSTOR   3788392.
  23. ↑ Weber, Eugen (1980). "The Second Republic, Politics, and the Peasant". French Historical Studies. 11 (4): 521–550. doi:10.2307/286349. JSTOR   286349.
  24. ↑ Margadant, Ted W. (1979). "French Rural Society in the Nineteenth Century: A Review Essay". Agricultural History. 53 (3): 644–651.
  25. 1 2 Cohen, p. 64
  26. ↑ Cohen, p. 65
  27. ↑ Hayford (1997).
  28. ↑ Mei, Yi-tsi (1998). Ideology, Power, Text: Self-Representation and the Peasant 'Other' in Modern Chinese Literature. Stanford University Press. p. 26. ISBN   978-0804733199
  29. ↑ Cohen, p. 73
  30. ↑ "The Agrarian Reform Law" (PDF). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 26 July 2022.
  31. ↑ Delahaye, Oliver (2018). La Cuestión Agraria en Venezuela (PDF) (in Spanish). Universidad de Los Andes. ISBN   978-980-11-1939-5.
  32. ↑ Paraguayan Bishops' Conference, Pastoral Letter El campesino paraguayo y la tierra (12 June 1983), quoted by Pope Francis in Laudato si', 2015, paragraph 94, accessed 1 January 2024
  33. ↑ Southern, Richard (1952) The Making of the Middle Ages.
  34. ↑ Wolf, Eric R. (1965). Peasants. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN   978-0136554561.
  35. ↑ Van der Ploeg, Jan Douwe (2012). The new peasantries: struggles for autonomy and sustainability in an era of empire and globalization. Routledge.
  36. ↑ Moore, Barrington (1993). Social origins of dictatorship and democracy: Lord and peasant in the making of the modern world. Vol. 268. Beacon Press.
  37. ↑ Shanin, Teodor (1973). "The nature and logic of the peasant economy 1: A Generalisation". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 1: 63–80. doi:10.1080/03066157308437872.
  38. ↑ Alves, Leonardo Marcondes (2018). Give us this day our daily bread: The moral order of Pentecostal peasants in South Brazil. Master's thesis in Cultural Anthropology. Uppsala universitet.
  39. ↑ Wolf, Eric R. (1969) Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century. New York: Harper & Row.
  40. ↑ Cohen, Myron (1993). "Cultural and Political Inventions in Modern China: The Case of the Chinese "Peasant"". Daedalus. 122 (2): 151–170. JSTOR   20027171.

Cited sources

Bibliography

Recent

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.