Rural development

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A rural development academy in Bogra, Bangladesh. Many government and non-governmental agencies invest in capacity building and opportunities for rural communities to gain greater access to economic opportunities. Rural Development Academy, Bogra 24.JPG
A rural development academy in Bogra, Bangladesh. Many government and non-governmental agencies invest in capacity building and opportunities for rural communities to gain greater access to economic opportunities.

Rural development is the process of improving the quality of life and economic well-being of people living in rural areas, often relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas. [1] Often, rural regions have experienced rural poverty, poverty greater than urban or suburban economic regions due to lack of access to economic activities, and lack of investments in key infrastructure such as education.

Contents

Rural development has traditionally centered on the exploitation of land-intensive natural resources such as agriculture and forestry. However, changes in global production networks and increased urbanization have changed the character of rural areas. Increasingly rural tourism, niche manufacturers, and recreation have replaced resource extraction and agriculture as dominant economic drivers. [2] The need for rural communities to approach development from a wider perspective has created more focus on a broad range of development goals rather than merely creating incentive for agricultural or resource-based businesses.

Education, entrepreneurship, physical infrastructure, and social infrastructure all play an important role in developing rural regions. [3] Rural development is also characterized by its emphasis on locally produced economic development strategies. [4] In contrast to urban regions, which have many similarities, rural areas are highly distinctive from one another. For this reason there are a large variety of rural development approaches used globally. [5]

Rural poverty

This section is an excerpt from Rural poverty.[ edit ]
Gustave Courbet depicted nineteenth century rural poverty in this painting. Gustave Courbet (1819-1877) - Poor Woman of the Village.jpg
Gustave Courbet depicted nineteenth century rural poverty in this painting.

Rural poverty refers to situations where people living in non-urban regions are in a state or condition of lacking the financial resources and essentials for living. It takes account of factors of rural society, rural economy, and political systems that give rise to the marginalization and economic disadvantage found there. [6] Rural areas, because of their small, spread-out populations, typically have less well maintained infrastructure and a harder time accessing markets, which tend to be concentrated in population centers.

Rural communities also face disadvantages in terms of legal and social protections, with women and marginalized communities frequently having a harder time accessing land, education and other support systems that help with economic development. Several policies have been tested in both developing and developed economies, including rural electrification and access to other technologies such as internet, gender parity, and improved access to credit and income.

In academic studies, rural poverty is often discussed in conjunction with spatial inequality, which in this context refers to the inequality between urban and rural areas. [7] Both rural poverty and spatial inequality are global phenomena, but like poverty in general, there are higher rates of rural poverty in developing countries than in developed countries. [8]

Many parts of rural Africa, such as this community in Mozambique, experience rural poverty. This woman was given access to a bicycle through a rural development program through a Bicycle poverty reduction program. Access to affordable transportation has been a key part of gaining access to greater economic mobility in many parts of the world. For example, distributing bicycles was one of the key strategies used by China to reduce rural poverty in the 20th century. Mozambikes Fighting Poverty Using Efficient and Affordable Transportation in Rural Mozambique (18851895624).jpg
Many parts of rural Africa, such as this community in Mozambique, experience rural poverty. This woman was given access to a bicycle through a rural development program through a Bicycle poverty reduction program. Access to affordable transportation has been a key part of gaining access to greater economic mobility in many parts of the world. For example, distributing bicycles was one of the key strategies used by China to reduce rural poverty in the 20th century.

Eradicating rural poverty through effective policies and economic growth is a continuing difficulty for the international community, as it invests in rural development. [8] [10] According to the International Fund for Agricultural Development, 70 percent of the people in extreme poverty are in rural areas, most of whom are smallholders or agricultural workers whose livelihoods are heavily dependent on agriculture. [11] These food systems are vulnerable to extreme weather, which is expected to affect agricultural systems the world over more as climate change increases. [12] [13]

Thus the climate crisis is expected to reduce the effectiveness of programs reducing rural poverty and cause displacement of rural communities to urban centers. [12] [13] Sustainable Development Goal 1: No Poverty sets international goals to address these issues, and is deeply connected with investments in a sustainable food system as part of Sustainable Development Goal 2: Zero Hunger. [14] [15]

Approaches to development

Rural development actions are intended to further the social and economic development of rural communities. [16] [17]

Rural development programs were historically top-down approaches from local or regional authorities, regional development agencies, NGOs, national governments or international development organizations. [18] However, a critical 'organization gap' identified during the late 1960s, reflecting on the disjunction between national organizations and rural communities led to a great focus on community participation in rural development agendas. [18] Oftentimes this was achieved through political decentralization policies in developing countries, particularly popular among African countries, or policies that shift the power of socio-politico-economic decision-making and the election of representatives and leadership from centralized governments to local governments. [19] As a result, local populations can also bring about endogenous initiatives for development. The term rural development is not limited to issues of developing countries. In fact many developed countries have very active rural development programs.[ citation needed ]

Rural development aims at finding ways to improve rural lives with the participation of rural people themselves, so as to meet the required needs of rural communities. [20] The outsider may not understand the setting, culture, language and other things prevalent in the local area. As such, rural people themselves have to participate in their sustainable rural development. In developing countries like Nepal, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, integrated development approaches are being followed up. [21] In this context, many approaches and ideas have been developed and implemented, for instance, bottom-up approaches, PRA- Participatory Rural Appraisal, RRA- Rapid Rural Appraisal, Working With People (WWP), [22] etc. The New Rural Reconstruction Movement in China has been actively promoting rural development through their ecological farming projects. [23] [24]

The role of NGOs/non-profits in developing countries

Because decentralization policies made development problems the responsibility of local governments, it also opened the door for non-governmental organizations (NGOs), nonprofits, and other foreign actors to become more involved in the approach to these issues. For example, the elimination of statist approaches to development caused an exponential increase in the number of NGOs active in Africa, and additionally caused them to take on increasingly important roles. Consequently, nonprofits and NGOs are also greatly involved in the provisioning of needs in developing countries and they play an increasingly large role in supporting rural development. [25] [19]

These organizations are often criticized for taking over responsibilities that are traditionally carried out by the state, causing governments to become ineffective in handling these responsibilities over time. Within Africa, NGOs carry out the majority of sustainable building and construction through donor-funded, low-income housing projects. [26] Furthermore, they are often faulted for being easily controlled by donor money and oriented to serve the needs of local elites above the rest of the population. [27] As a result of this critique, many NGOs have started to include strategies in their projects that promote community participation. [28]

Many scholars argue that NGOs are an insufficient solution to a lack of development leadership as a result of decentralization policies. Human rights expert Susan Dicklitch points to the historical context of colonialism, organization-specific limitations, and regime restraints as hindrances to the promises of NGOs. [29] She notes that "NGOs are increasingly relegated to service provision and gap-filling activities as by the retreating state, but those supportive functions are not matched with increased political efficacy". [29]

International examples

Uganda

In Uganda specifically, several mid-century centrist administrations, particularly the regimes of Idi Amin (1971–1979) and Milton Obote (1981–1986), described as brutal and ineffective led to a sharp drop in responsiveness to citizen's needs between 1966 and 1986. [19] [25] As a result of these administrations, several constraints were placed on local governments that prevented effective development initiatives: every single employee in local governments had to be appointed by the president, all local budgets and bylaws had to be approved by the Minister of Local Government, and this Minister could dissolve any local government council. [25]

Because of the several shortcomings of the dictatorial government in promoting the participation of citizens in local development efforts, a decentralization campaign was officially launched in Uganda in 1992, with its legislative culmination occurring in 1997 with the passing of the Local Governments Act. This act led to the transfer of power to local governments in an attempt to encourage citizen participation and further rural development. [25] Regarding funding under the decentralization structure, local governments receive a majority of their funds in block grants from the national government, mostly as conditional grants but with some unconditional and equalization grants administered as well. Furthermore, local governments were given the power to collect taxes from their constituents, however, this usually only accounts for less than 10 percent of the local government's budget. [27]

Debates in decentralization efforts

Some scholars express concern that decentralization efforts in Uganda may not actually be leading to an increase in participation and development. For example, despite increases over the years in local councils and civil society organizations (CSOs) in rural Uganda, efforts are consistently undermined by a lacking socio-economic structure leading to high rates of illiteracy, poor agricultural techniques, market access, and transportation systems. [27] These shortcomings are often a result of taxes and payments imposed by local authorities and administration agents that inhibit farmers' access to larger markets. [27] Furthermore, the overall financial strength of local governments is considerably weaker than that of the national government, which adversely affects their responsiveness to the needs of their citizens and success in increasing participation in community development initiatives. [27] Finally, civil society organizations are often ineffective in practice at mobilizing for the community's interests. [27] Umar Kakumba, a scholar at Makerere University in Uganda, notes of CSOs: [27]

The CSOs' inability to effectively mobilize for and represent the local community's interests is linked to the disabling regulatory environment with cumbersome and elaborate procedures for registration and restrictions on what constitutes allowable advocacy activities; their desire to complement the work of government rather than questioning it; the difficulties in raising adequate resources from their membership; the inability to exercise internal democracy and accountability; the urban/elite orientation of most NGOs; and the donor funding that encourages a number of CSOs to emerge in order to clinch a share of the donor monies.

Nigeria

This section is an excerpt from Rural development in Nigeria.[ edit ]

Since independence, several rural development and extension education programs have been implemented in Nigeria. [30]

A child is checked for signs of malnutrition in Katsina State, Nigeria, March 2011 A child is checked for signs of malnutrition in Katsina State, Nigeria, March 2011 (8406367308).jpg
A child is checked for signs of malnutrition in Katsina State, Nigeria, March 2011
In Nigeria, several subsequent governments have implemented different policies in an attempt to develop the rural areas and alleviate the poverty rate that has become a prominent decadence in such areas. However, very little success has been recorded so far.

Rural development agencies

In many countries, the national and subnational government delegates rural development to agencies and support centers.

List of agencies

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Food and Agriculture Organization</span> Specialised agency of the United Nations

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger and improve nutrition and food security. Its Latin motto, fiat panis, translates to "let there be bread". It was founded on 16 October 1945.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Non-governmental organization</span> Organization, usually created to aid those in need

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is an independent, typically nonprofit organization that operates outside government control. NGOs often focus on humanitarian or social issues but can also include clubs and associations offering services to members. Some NGOs, like the World Economic Forum, may also act as lobby groups for corporations. Unlike international organizations (IOs), which directly interact with sovereign states and governments, NGOs are independent from them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rural area</span> Geographic area outside towns and cities

In general, a rural area or a countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas and areas with forestry are typically described as rural, as well as other areas lacking substantial development. Different countries have varying definitions of rural for statistical and administrative purposes.

Community-based economics or community economics is an economic system that encourages local substitution. It is similar to the lifeways of those practicing voluntary simplicity, including traditional Mennonite, Amish, and modern eco-village communities. It is also a subject in urban economics, related to moral purchasing and local purchasing.

The United Nations defines community development as "a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems." It is a broad concept, applied to the practices of civic leaders, activists, involved citizens, and professionals to improve various aspects of communities, typically aiming to build stronger and more resilient local communities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forestry law</span> Field of law

Forestry laws govern activities in designated forest lands, most commonly with respect to forest management and timber harvesting. Forestry laws generally adopt management policies for public forest resources, such as multiple use and sustained yield. Forest management is split between private and public management, with public forests being sovereign property of the State. Forestry laws are now considered an international affair.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poverty reduction</span> Measures to reduce poverty permanently

Poverty reduction, poverty relief, or poverty alleviation is a set of measures, both economic and humanitarian, that are intended to permanently lift people out of poverty. Measures, like those promoted by Henry George in his economics classic Progress and Poverty, are those that raise, or are intended to raise, ways of enabling the poor to create wealth for themselves as a conduit of ending poverty forever. In modern times, various economists within the Georgism movement propose measures like the land value tax to enhance access to the natural world for all. Poverty occurs in both developing countries and developed countries. While poverty is much more widespread in developing countries, both types of countries undertake poverty reduction measures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Capacity building</span> Process within NGOs and non-profits

Capacity building is the improvement in an individual's or organization's facility "to produce, perform or deploy". The terms capacity building and capacity development have often been used interchangeably, although a publication by OECD-DAC stated in 2006 that capacity development was the preferable term. Since the 1950s, international organizations, governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and communities use the concept of capacity building as part of "social and economic development" in national and subnational plans. The United Nations Development Programme defines itself by "capacity development" in the sense of "'how UNDP works" to fulfill its mission. The UN system applies it in almost every sector, including several of the Sustainable Development Goals to be achieved by 2030. For example, the Sustainable Development Goal 17 advocates for enhanced international support for capacity building in developing countries to support national plans to implement the 2030 Agenda. 

The Millennium Villages Project (MVP) was a demonstration project headed by the American economist Jeffrey Sachs under the auspices of the Earth Institute at Columbia University, the United Nations Development Programme, and Millennium Promise with the goal of achieving the U.N.'s Millennium Development Goals in rural Africa by 2015.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Village Earth</span>

Village Earth: The Consortium for Sustainable Village-Based Development (CSVBD) DBA: Village Earth is a publicly supported 501(c)(3) non-profit, non-governmental organization (NGO) based in Fort Collins, Colorado, US. The organization works for the empowerment of rural and indigenous communities around the world with active projects with the Oglala Lakota on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota, the Shipibo-Konibo of the Amazon region of Peru, India, Cambodia, and Guatemala. Village Earth is associated with the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) at Colorado State University. Village Earth is also the publisher for The Appropriate Technology Library and The Appropriate Technology Sourcebook, a low-cost rural-development resource initiated by Volunteers in Asia in 1975 but transferred to Village Earth in 1995.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in Ghana</span>

The water supply and sanitation sector in Ghana is a sector that is in charge of the supply of healthy water and also improves the sanitation of water bodies in the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in Uganda</span>

The Ugandan water supply and sanitation sector made substantial progress in urban areas from the mid-1990s until at least 2006, with substantial increases in coverage as well as in operational and commercial performance. Sector reforms from 1998 to 2003 included the commercialization and modernization of the National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) operating in cities and larger towns, as well as decentralization and private sector participation in small towns.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water supply and sanitation in Benin</span>

Drinking water supply and sanitation in Benin has been subject to considerable progress since the 1990s, in particular in rural areas, where coverage is higher than in many other African countries, and almost all development partners follow a national demand-responsive strategy, which has been adopted in 1992. New strategies to increase water supply in rural and urban areas have been adopted in 2005 and 2006. Tariffs in urban and rural areas are usually high enough to cover the costs for operation and maintenance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rural economics</span> Study of rural economies

Rural economics is the study of rural economies. Rural economies include both agricultural and non-agricultural industries, so rural economics has broader concerns than agricultural economics which focus more on food systems. Rural development and finance attempt to solve larger challenges within rural economics. These economic issues are often connected to the migration from rural areas due to lack of economic activities and rural poverty. Some interventions have been very successful in some parts of the world, with rural electrification and rural tourism providing anchors for transforming economies in some rural areas. These challenges often create rural-urban income disparities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agroecology in Latin America</span> Agroecological practices in Latin America

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Community forestry</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rural poverty</span> Poverty in rural areas, which are often less developed than urban areas worldwide

Rural poverty refers to situations where people living in non-urban regions are in a state or condition of lacking the financial resources and essentials for living. It takes account of factors of rural society, rural economy, and political systems that give rise to the marginalization and economic disadvantage found there. Rural areas, because of their small, spread-out populations, typically have less well maintained infrastructure and a harder time accessing markets, which tend to be concentrated in population centers.

Community-driven development (CDD) is an initiative in the field of development that provides control of the development process, resources and decision making authority directly to groups in the community. The underlying assumption of CDD projects are that communities are the best judges of how their lives and livelihoods can be improved and, if provided with adequate resources and information, they can organize themselves to provide for their immediate needs. CDD projects work by providing poor communities with direct funding for development with the communities then deciding how to spend the money. Lastly, the community plans and builds the project and takes responsibility for monitoring its progress.

The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) is an international financial institution and a specialized agency of the United Nations dedicated to eradicating rural poverty in Vietnam and other developing countries. IFAD supports more than 200 ongoing programmes and projects around the world.

Soil governance refers to the policies, strategies, and the processes of decision-making employed by nation states and local governments regarding the use of soil. Globally, governance of the soil has been limited to an agricultural perspective due to increased food insecurity from the most populated regions on earth. The Global Soil Partnership, GSP, was initiated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and its members with the hope to improve governance of the limited soil resources of the planet in order to guarantee healthy and productive soils for a food-secure world, as well as support other essential ecosystem services.

References

  1. ↑ Moseley, Malcolm J. (2003). Rural development : principles and practice (1. publ. ed.). London [u.a.]: SAGE. p. 5. ISBN   978-0-7619-4766-0.
  2. ↑ Ward, Neil; Brown, David L. (1 December 2009). "Placing the Rural in Regional Development". Regional Studies. 43 (10): 1237–1244. Bibcode:2009RegSt..43.1237W. doi: 10.1080/00343400903234696 .
  3. ↑ Rowley, Thomas D., ed. (1996). Rural development research : a foundation for policy (1. publ. ed.). Westport, Conn. [u.a.]: Greenwood Press. ISBN   978-0-313-29726-7.
  4. ↑ Moseley, Malcolm J. (2003). Rural development : principles and practice (1. publ. ed.). London [u.a.]: SAGE. p. 7. ISBN   978-0-7619-4766-0.
  5. ↑ Van Assche, Kristof. & Hornidge, Anna-Katharina. (2015) Rural development. Knowledge & expertise in governance. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen
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  7. ↑ Kanbur, Ravi; Venables, Anthony J. (2005). Spatial inequality and development. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780199278633. Pdf version.
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  13. 1 2 Hallegatte, Stephane; Fay, Marianne; Barbier, Edward B. (June 2018). "Poverty and climate change: introduction". Environment and Development Economics. 23 (3): 217–233. doi:10.1017/S1355770X18000141. ISSN   1355-770X. S2CID   158756317.
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  16. ↑ Chigbu, Uchendu Eugene (2012). "Village renewal as an instrument of rural development: Evidence from Weyarn, Germany". Community Development. 43 (2): 209–224. doi:10.1080/15575330.2011.575231. S2CID   154040610.
  17. ↑ World Bank. (1975) Rural development. Sector policy paper. Washington, DC: The World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/522641468766236215/Rural-development
  18. 1 2 Cohen, John M.; Uphoff, Norman T. (1980-03-01). "Participation's place in rural development: Seeking clarity through specificity". World Development. 8 (3): 213–235. doi:10.1016/0305-750X(80)90011-X. ISSN   0305-750X.
  19. 1 2 3 Kauzya, John-Mary (2007). "Political Decentralization in Africa: Experiences of Uganda, Rwanda and South Africa". Decentralizing Governance: Emerging Concepts and Practices: 75–91. S2CID   14217979.
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  21. ↑ Anil K. Rajvanshi , Roadmap for Rural India, Current Science, Vol. 111, No.1, July 2016
  22. ↑ Cazorla, A., De Los Ríos, I., & Salvo, M. (2013). Working With People (WWP) in Rural Development Projects: a Proposal from Social Learning. Cuadernos de Desarrollo Rural, 10 (70), 131-157
  23. ↑ Si, Zhenzhong; Scott, Steffanie (2016). "The convergence of alternative food networks within "rural development" initiatives: The case of the New Rural Reconstruction Movement in China†". Local Environment. 21 (9): 1082–1099. Bibcode:2016LoEnv..21.1082S. doi:10.1080/13549839.2015.1067190. S2CID   155350742.
  24. ↑ Scott, Steffanie; Si, Zhenzhong; Schumilas, Theresa and Chen, Aijuan. (2018). Organic Food and Farming in China: Top-down and Bottom-up Ecological Initiatives New York: Routledge
  25. 1 2 3 4 Kakumba, U.; Nsingo, S. (2008-06-01). "Citizen participation in local government and the process of rural development : the rhetoric and reality in Uganda". Journal of Public Administration. 43 (2): 107–123. ISSN   0036-0767.
  26. ↑ du Plessis, Chrisna (September 2005). "Action for sustainability: preparing an African plan for sustainable building and construction". Building Research & Information. 33 (5): 405–415. Bibcode:2005BuRI...33..405D. doi:10.1080/09613210500218974. ISSN   0961-3218. S2CID   218591642.
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kakumba, Umar (2010-03-01). "Local government citizen participation and rural development: reflections on Uganda's decentralization system". International Review of Administrative Sciences. 76 (1): 171–186. doi:10.1177/0020852309359049. ISSN   0020-8523. S2CID   154638129.
  28. ↑ Pocock, James; Steckler, Carey; Hanzalova, Barbora (2016-01-01). "Improving Socially Sustainable Design and Construction in Developing Countries". Procedia Engineering. ICSDEC 2016 – Integrating Data Science, Construction and Sustainability. 145: 288–295. doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2016.04.076 . ISSN   1877-7058.
  29. 1 2 Dicklitch, Susan (1998). The elusive promise of NGOs in Africa : lessons from Uganda. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan. ISBN   978-0-230-50211-6. OCLC   759106076.
  30. ↑ Ibenegbu, George. "Rural development in Nigeria: Top facts every Nigerian should know" . Retrieved 31 March 2018.
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