Based on coalescence of Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosome data, it is thought that the earliest extant lineages of anatomically modern humans or Homo sapiens on the Indian subcontinent had reached there from Africa between 80,000 and 50,000 years ago, and with high likelihood by 55,000 years ago.[80][25][26][27] However, the earliest known modern human fossils in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago.[26] Evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan, Pakistan after 6500BCE.[81] These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[82][81] the first urban culture in South Asia,[83] which flourished during 2500–1900BCE in Pakistan and western India.[84] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.[83]
During the period 2000–500BCE, many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic cultures to the Iron Age ones.[85] The Vedas, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism,[86] were composed during this period,[87] and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.[85] Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.[86] The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this period.[88] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.[85] In South India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,[89] as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[89]
Classical Sanskrit, a refined and standardized grammatical form emerged in the mid-1st millennium BCE and was codified in the Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight chapters') of Pāṇini.[m] Later, the best-known dramatist of Sanskrit, Kālidāsa, wrote in classical Sanskrit, and the foundations of modern arithmetic were first described in classical Sanskrit.[n][91] The two major Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa, however, were composed in a range of oral storytelling registers called Epic Sanskrit which was used in northern India between 400 BCE and 300 CE, and roughly contemporary with classical Sanskrit.[92] Politically, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas.[93][94] The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.[95]Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, attracted followers from many social classes; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.[96][97][98] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal,[99] and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. By the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Maurya Empire.[100] The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.[101][102] The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.[103][104]
The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200BCE and 200CE, the southern peninsula was ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and Southeast Asia.[105][106] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.[107][100] By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.[108][109] Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.[110] This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.[109]
Manuscript illustration, c.1650, of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana, composed in story-telling fashion c.400BCE– c.300CE[111]
Colour lithograph, 1895, British Museum. Draupadi, the wife of all five Pandava brothers in the Mahabharata, is presented at a parcheesi game where Yudhishthira, the king of Hastinapura, had gambled away all material wealth, one of several instigating factors in the Mahabharata war.
The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200CE, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.[112] When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.[113] When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[113] When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south.[113] No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core region.[112] During this time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.[114] The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.[114]
In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language.[115] They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent.[115] Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.[116] Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.[116] By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in Southeast Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.[117] Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; Southeast Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.[117]
After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[118] The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs.[119][120]
By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[121][122] The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire.[123] Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,[124] and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.[123]
In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers,[125] fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.[126] The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices[127][128] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[129] leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.[130] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.[129]
The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture[131] and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[132] caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[130] The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[130] resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.[133] Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.[134] Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.[134] As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.[135]
By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts.[136][137] The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly assert its military strength and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.[138][136][139][140] Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annexe or subdue most of India by the 1820s.[141] India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the British Empire with raw materials. Many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period.[136] By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture.[142]
The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state: the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens. Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe.[143][144][145][146] Disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule.[147][148] The East India Company was disbanded, and the British government began to directly administer India. Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.[149][150] In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885.[151][152][153][154]
The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks, and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets.[155] There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines,[156] and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians.[157] However, commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.[158] The railway network provided critical famine relief,[159] notably reduced the cost of moving goods,[159] and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.[158]
India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the Indian tectonic plate, and a part of the Indo-Australian Plate.[172] India's defining geologic processes began approximately 70million years ago, when the Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a north-eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.[172] Simultaneously, the vast Tethyanoceanic crust, to its northeast, began to subduct under the Eurasian Plate.[172] The Indian continental crust, however, was obstructed and was sheared horizontally. Its lower crust and mantle slid under, but the upper layer piled up in sheets (or nappes) ahead of the subduction zone.[173] This created the orogeny, or process of mountain building, of the Himalayas.[174] The middle and stiffer layer continued to push into Tibet, causing crustal thickening of the Tibetan Plateau.[175] Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast crescent-shaped trough that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment[176] and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[177] The original Indian plate makes its first appearance above the sediment in the ancient Aravalli range, which extends from the Delhi Ridge in a southwesterly direction. To the west lies the Thar Desert, the eastern spread of which is checked by the Aravallis.[178][179][180]
The remaining Indian Plate survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India. It extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[181] To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats;[182] the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude[o] and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east longitude.[183]
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[184] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi. The Kosi's extremely low gradient, caused by long-term silt deposition, leads to severe floods and course changes.[185][186] Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[187] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[188]
India's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700mi) in length; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.[189] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% mudflats or marshy shores.[189] Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh.[190] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[191]
A panoramic view of the Garhwal and Kumaon Himalayas. Peaks rising above their surroundings in this view are, among others, Trisul, Nanda Devi, the highest peak entirely within India's borders, and Nanda Kot. The Tibetan Plateau lies behind these mountains, as does the part of the Indus-Yarlung suture zone, the contour along which the Indian Plate has welded to the Eurasian plate. Mount Kailas and Lake Manasarovar in the Tibet Trans-Himalaya—sacred in Hindu and Buddhist mythology—lie immediately behind to the right. The Indus and Yarlung Tsangpo (the upper Brahmaputra river), which mark the western and eastern limits of the Himalaya range, rise in the vicinity of the lake.
The Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons.[193] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[194][195] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[193]
India's most dense forests, such as the tropical moist forest of the Andaman Islands, the Western Ghats, and Northeast India, occupy approximately 3% of its land area.[205][206]Moderately dense forest, whose canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of India's land area.[205][206] It predominates in the temperate coniferous forest of the Himalayas, the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India, and the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India.[207] India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the Deccan Plateau, immediately east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain, now turned into rich agricultural land by irrigation, its features no longer visible.[208] Among the Indian subcontinent's notable indigenous trees are the astringentAzadirachta indica, or neem, which is widely used in rural Indian herbal medicine,[209] and the luxuriant Ficus religiosa, or peepul,[210] which is displayed on the ancient seals of Mohenjo-daro,[211] and under which the Buddha is recorded in the Pali canon to have sought enlightenment.[212]
Many Indian species have descended from those of Gondwana, the southern supercontinent from which India separated more than 100 million years ago.[213] India's subsequent collision with Eurasia set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes later caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[214] Still later, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographic passes flanking the Himalayas.[215] This lowered endemism among India's mammals, which stands at 12.6%, contrasting with 45.8% among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians.[202] Among endemics are the vulnerable[216]hooded leaf monkey[217] and the threatened Beddome's toad[218][219] of the Western Ghats.
The Constitution of India was drafted by the Constituent Assembly of India with uncommon speed and absence of irregularities between 1946 and 1949.[244] The Government of India Act 1935 was used as a model and framework.[244] Long passages from the Act were included. The constitution describes a federal state with a parliamentary system of democracy.[244] The federal structure was conspicuous for the strength of the central government, which exclusively exercised control of defence, foreign affairs, railways, ports, and currency.[244] The President, the constitutional head of government, has reserve powers for taking over the administration of a state.[244] The central legislature has two houses: the Lok Sabha, whose delegates are directly elected by the people in general elections every five years, and the Rajya Sabha, whose members are nominated by the elected representatives in the states.[244] There are also features not to be found in the Act of 1935. The definition of fundamental rights is based on the Constitution of the United States, and the constitutional directives, or goals of endeavor, are based on the Constitution of Ireland.[245] An Indian institution recommended by the constitution is the panchayat or village committees.[245]Untouchability is illegal (Article 17) and caste distinctions are derecognized (Articles 15(2) and 16(2)).[245] The promulgation of the Indian constitution transformed India into a republic within the Commonwealth.[245]
The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power.[246] Appointed by the president,[247] the prime minister is supported by the party or political alliance with a majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.[246] The executive of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the Union Council of Ministers—with the cabinet being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.[248] In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and their council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament. Civil servants act as permanent executives and all decisions of the executive are implemented by them.[249]
The original preamble of the Constitution of India in 1950. In 1976, during the tenure of Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi, the first sentence was changed to "Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic".
A clickable map of the 28 states and 8 union territories of India
India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories.[12] All states, as well as the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir, Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments following the Westminster system. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the central government through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.[255] There are over a quarter of a million local government bodies at city, town, block, district and village levels.[256]
India became a republic in 1950, remaining a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.[257][258] India strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia in the 1950s; it played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[259] After initial cordial relations, India suffered a military defeat to China in the Sino-Indian War of 1962.[260] Following this, in the Sino-Indian War of 1967 India achieved a military victory over China.[261]
The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces. With 1.45million active troops, India's military is the world's second-largest. The military comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, the Indian Air Force, and the Indian Coast Guard.[275] The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03billion, or 1.83% of GDP.[276] Defence expenditure was pegged at US$70.12billion for fiscal year 2022–23 and, increased 9.8% on the previous fiscal year.[277][278] India is the world's second-largest arms importer; between 2016 and 2020, it accounted for 9.5% of the total global arms imports.[279] Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.[280]
According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Indian economy in 2024 was nominally worth $3.94trillion; it is the fifth-largest economy by market exchange rates and, at around $15.0trillion, the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).[16] With an average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–2012,[281] India is one of the world's fastest-growing economies.[282] However, due to its low GDP per capita—which ranks 136th in the world in nominal per capita income and 125th in per capita income adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP)—the vast majority of Indians fall into the low-income group.[283][284]
Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years before 2007,[286] India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century.[296] Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India's middle classes are projected to number around 580million by 2030.[297] In 2024, India's consumer market was the world's third largest.[298] India's nominal GDP per capita increased steadily from US$308 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,380 in 2010, to an estimated US$2,731 in 2024. It is expected to grow to US$3,264 by 2026.[16]
In 2019, 43% of India's total workforce was employed in agriculture.[299]
A woman growing radish in the foreground and garlic to the right in a village in the Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu. 55% of India's female workforce was employed in agriculture in 2019.[300]
India is the world's largest producer of milk, with the largest population of cattle. In 2018, nearly 80% of India's milk was sourced from small farms with herd size between one and two, the milk harvested by hand milking.[301]
The Indian automotive industry, the world's second-fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–2010,[302] and exports by 36% during 2008–2009.[303] In 2022, India became the world's third-largest vehicle market after China and the United States, surpassing Japan.[304] At the end of 2011, the Indian IT industry employed 2.8million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP, and contributed 26% of India's merchandise exports.[305]
The pharmaceutical industry in India includes 3,000 pharmaceutical companies and 10,500 manufacturing units; India is the world's third-largest pharmaceutical producer, largest producer of generic medicines, and supplies up to 50–60% of global vaccines demand, contributing up to US$24.44billions in exports. India's local pharmaceutical market is estimated up to US$42billion.[306][307] India is among the top 12 biotech destinations in the world.[308][309] The Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 2012–2013, increasing its revenues from ₹204.4billion (Indian rupees) to ₹235.24billion (US$3.94billion at June 2013 exchange rates).[310]
A tea garden in Sikkim. India, the world's second-largest producer of tea, is a nation of one billion tea drinkers, who consume 70% of India's tea output.
A panorama of Bangalore, the centre of India's software development economy. In the 1980s, when the first multinational corporations began to set up centres in India, they chose Bangalore because of the large pool of skilled graduates in the area, in turn due to the many science and engineering colleges in the surrounding region.[316]
A Chinese fishing net being raised out of the water in Kochi. Fishing, which contributes 1.07% to India's total GDP,[317] supports the livelihood of over 28 million people, especially within the marginalized and vulnerable communities.[318] India is the third-largest fish producing country in the world, accounting for 7.96% of the global production.[317]
With an estimated 1,428,627,663 residents in 2023, India is the world's most populous country.[13] 1,210,193,422 residents were reported in the 2011 provisional census report.[319] The median age was 28.7 in 2020.[275] Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "Green Revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly,[320] though India's decennial rates of growth are decreasing: ts population grew by 17.64% from 2001 to 2011,[321] compared to 21.54% growth in the previous decade (1991–2001).[321] The first post-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361million people.[322] The life expectancy at birth has increased from 49.7 years in 1970–1975 to 72.0 years in 2023.[323][324] The under-five mortality rate for the country was 113 per 1,000 live births in 1994 whereas in 2018 it reduced to 41.1 per 1,000 live births.[323]
The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.[319]Female infanticide in India, and lately female foeticide, have created lop-sided gender ratios; the number of missing women in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63million during the period 1964–2014, faster than the population growth during the same period.[325] According to an Indian government study, an additional 21 million girls are unwanted and do not receive adequate care.[326] Despite a government ban on sex-selective foeticide, the practice has far from stopped.[327]
Migration from rural to urban areas has been an important dynamic in India's recent history. The number of people living in urban areas grew by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.[328] In 2001, over 70% lived in rural areas.[329][330] The level of urbanisation increased further from 27.81% in the 2001 census to 31.16% in the 2011 census. The slowing down of the overall population growth rate was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991.[331] In the 2011 census, there were 53 million-plus urban agglomerations in India. Among them Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad, in decreasing order by population.[332]
The historical development of life expectancy in India from 1881 to 2023
The child mortality rate in India from 1960 to 2019
Thr official language of India's federal government was chosen by the Constituent Assembly of India in September 1949 after three years of debate between two opposing camps. The Hindi language protagonists wanted the Hindi in the Devanagari script to be the sole "national language" of India; the delegates from South India preferred English to have a place in the Constitution.[335][336] The compromise reached declared (i) Hindi to be the "official language" of India's federal government; (ii) English to be an associate official language for 15 years during which Hindi's formal lexicon would be developed; and (iii) the international form of the Hindu–Arabic numerals to be the official numerals.[335][336] The compromise resolution became articles 343–351 of India's constitution, which came into effect on 26 January 1950.[335][336] In 1965, when the 15 years were up, the Government of India announced that English would continue to be the "de facto formal language of India."[335][336]
The regions of first-language speech of the main languages of India
The main languages of India by relative sizes of speakers
On the reverse of each of India's paper money notes, the denomination is listed in a panel on the left in 15 languages, in addition to Hindi and English, which appear more prominently elsewhere. These are from top to bottom: 1.Assamese, 2.Bengali, 3.Gujarati, 4.Kannada, 5.Kashmiri, 6.Konkani, 7.Malayalam, 8.Marathi, 9.Nepali, 10.Oriya, 11.Punjabi, 12.Sanskrit, 13.Tamil, 14.Telugu, 15.Urdu.[340]
A member of the Gond tribe during the Dandari festival in Jainoor, Telengana. Some 8.6% of India's population belong to tribal groups. The supercontinent Gondwana is named after the Gond region of India. Their religion predates the Hindu synthesis of the mid-first-millennium BCE.
A Jain woman making an offering at the feet of Bahubali Gomateswara at Shravanabelagola, Karnataka
The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.[346] The rural-urban literacy gap, which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped to 16.1 percentage points in 2011. The improvement in the rural literacy rate is twice that of urban areas.[331]Kerala is the most literate state with 93.91% literacy; while Bihar the least with 63.82%.[346] In the 2011 census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for men and 65% for women. This compares to 1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951, the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%. In 1921, the rates 7%, 12% and 2%. In 1891, they were 5%, 9% and 1%,[347][348] According to Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were under three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically, more caste and religious diversity reduced private spending. Primary schools taught literacy, so local diversity limited its growth.[349]
The education system of India is the world's second-largest.[350] India has over 900 universities, 40,000 colleges[351] and 1.5million schools.[352] In India's higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically disadvantaged. In recent decades India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic development.[353][354]
Children await school lunch in Rayka (also Raika), a village in rural Gujarat. The salutation Jai Bhim written on the blackboard honours the jurist, social reformer, and Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar.
India bears a disproportionately large burden of the world's tuberculosis rates, with World Health Organization (WHO) statistics for 2022 estimating 2.8 million new infections annually, accounting for 26% of the global total.[357] It is estimated that approximately 40% of the population of India carry tuberculosis infection.[358]
Health workers about to begin another day of immunisation against infectious diseases in 2006. Eight years later, and three years after India's last case of polio, the World Health Organization declared India to be polio-free.[360]
Caste: Although sometimes applied to other cultures and religions, caste is a uniquely Indian, and Hindu, social institution.[r] All Hindus fall broadly into four castes, or varnas: Brahmin, or priests, at the top; below them Kshatriya, or warriors; further below, Vaishya, or merchants and farmers; and at the bottom, Shudra, or the service class. Outside the caste system, and therefore of traditional Hinduism, lie people formerly called "outcastes" or "untouchables," and now scheduled caste (a term used in India's constitution) or Dalit, a later self-description of pride, meaning broken or downtrodden. Each caste is further divided into sub-castes, or jatis, many tied to occupations. The custom of endogamy, or marrying within one's subcaste, however, makes caste is a hereditary label, not of one occupational choice, and the caste system, therefore, entrenched.[362] The Constituent Assembly of India abolished untouchability in 1947,[363] the Republic of India did more formally in 1950, and India has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives related to caste. Still, caste-based inequality, discrimination, segregation, and violence persist.[364][365]
Multi-generational patrilinealjoint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.[366] A very large majority of Indians have their marriages arranged by their parents or family elders.[367] Marriage is thought to be for life;[367] and the divorce rate is extremely low;[368] less than one in a thousand marriages end in divorce.[369] Many women marry before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age; child marriages are not uncommon, especially in rural areas; [370] In large parts of Hindu northern India, moreover, a form of territorial exogamy is observed in which a bride marries out of her natal village and her parents do not visit her in her married home; the annual rite raksha bandhan, during which married women return to their natal homes, has served both to affirm bonds with their natal families and offer a recourse in times of marital stress.[371][372]
The four broad varnas of the Hindu caste system; within each varna there are a large number of subdivisions called jatis.[362]
A member of the Ramnami Samaj, a movement among Dalits, whose members worship the Hindu deityRama and tattoo their bodies with his name.
India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of Eurasia, especially in the first millennium, when Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[373] Thousands of seals from the Indus Valley civilisation of the third millennium BCE have been found, usually carved with animals, but also some with human figures. The Pashupati seal, excavated in Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best known.[374][375] After this there is a long period with virtually nothing surviving.[375][376] Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious sculpture in durable materials, or coins. There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost. In north India Mauryan art is the first imperial movement.[377][378][379]
In the first millennium CE, Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[380] Over the following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in articulating precise anatomy than ancient Greek sculpture but showing smoothly flowing forms expressing prana ("breath" or life-force).[381][382] This is often complicated by the need to give figures multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva and Parvati.[383][384]
Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi, Sarnath and Amaravati,[385] or is rock cut reliefs at sites such as Ajanta, Karla and Ellora. Hindu and Jain sites appear rather later.[386][387] In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors probably usually served all communities.[388]Gupta art, at its peak c.300CE– c.500CE, is often regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance of Hindu sculpture, as at the Elephanta Caves.[389][390] Across the north, this became rather stiff and formulaic after c.800CE, though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.[391] But in the South, under the Pallava and Chola dynasties, sculpture in both stone and bronze had a sustained period of great achievement; the large bronzes with Shiva as Nataraja have become an iconic symbol of India.[392][393]
Ancient paintings have only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the Ajanta Caves are some of the most important.[394][395] Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern India from 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. These significantly influenced later artistic styles.[396] The Persian-derived Deccan painting, starting just before the Mughal miniature, between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.[397][398] The style spread to Hindu courts, especially among the Rajputs, and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most innovative, with figures such as Nihâl Chand and Nainsukh.[399][400] As a market developed among European residents, it was supplied by Company painting by Indian artists with considerable Western influence.[401][402] In the 19th century, cheap Kalighat paintings of gods and everyday life, done on paper, were urban folk art from Calcutta, which later saw the Bengal School of Art, reflecting the art colleges founded by the British, the first movement in modern Indian painting.[403][404]
Significant mathematics began in India in the first millennium BCE. The Śulba Sūtras (literally, "Aphorisms of the Chords" in Vedic Sanskrit) (c. 700–400 BCE) contain the earliest extant verbal expression of the Pythagorean theorem (although very likely it had been known to the Old Babylonians.)[405][s] All mathematical works were orally transmitted until approximately 500BCE; thereafter, they were transmitted both orally and in manuscript form. The oldest extant mathematical document produced on the Indian subcontinent is the birch bark Bakhshali Manuscript from the 7th century CE.[408][409]
India contains a wide array of musical practices, including many different folk musics from different regions. Indian classical music has Vedic origins, and split in the 13th century into the two main traditions of Hindustani and Carnatic music. Hindustani is associated with North India and more improvisational, featuring instruments such as the sitar and tabla, and Carnatic is South Indian and more focused on written compositions such as the kriti, while both styles contain common elements such as the raga melodic framework and tala rhythmic meter.[419] Indian music has influenced western genres, notably rock and jazz musicians during the 1960s counterculture.[420]
Dance in India has drawn heavily from Indian classical dance traditions. Many of these in turn arose in temples or other religious contexts. Their sponsorship and promotion, however, has continued in secular, modern India. [422] Among young urban middle-class women, for example, a proficiency in classical dance is sometimes a sought-after social achievement.[422] India also has local dance traditions. The conventional dance sequences of Indian films, including Bollywood, have relied on both classical and local traditions.[422]
Whether or not a dance is classical is decided by the Sangeet Natak Academi, the Indian government's organisation for performing arts. The classical status increases a dance's visibility and attracts more funding from agencies and ticket purchases from audiences.[422] Although more dances could perhaps meet the criteria for classical, the Akademi has chosen eight. Given the geographical distribution of the chosen dances and their stylistic range, the choices could be seen as a facet of India's ethos of national integration.[422] The classical dances are described in the table below.
The best-known classical dance is Bharatnatyam, which began in the temple dances of Tamildevadasis.[422] Identified with "prostitutes and courtesans," their dancing was formally banned in the Madras Devadasis Prevention of Dedication Act, 1947 after agitation from the Indian middle and upper classes.[422] Concurrently, the dance was rehabilitated as a "pure" art form, with Rukmini Devi Arundale as a prominent figure. A devdasi who went on to attain national and international prominence was Thanjavur Balasaraswati.[422]
Local dance traditions vary widely across India. In addition to the dance-dramas Chhau and Yakshagana, they include dance-dramas Raslila of western Uttar Pradesh and Terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu; calendrical and festival dances such as the Bhangra of Punjab, especially at Vaisakhi, the onset of spring, and Garba of Gujarat during Navratri; and tribal or Adivasi dances, such as those of the Santal and Toda people, the latter, for example, in honour of the god Ön who brought buffalo to earth.[422]
Among 20th-century directions is the modern dance of Uday Shankar in which classical styles were employed but not adhered to rigidly. Examples are dance-dramas based on the ancient Indian animal fables, Panchatantra, and Nehru's mid-century meditation on Indian history, The Discovery of India.[422] Dance has been an essential aspect of Indian films from the first talkies of the 1930s. The individual and group dances of Bollywood, for example, show a broad range of influences, including classical, local, and Western popular dance.[422] Towards the end of the 20th century, innovations in British South Asian music and dance, such as Post-Bhangra, fed back into dance in India.[422]
From ancient times until the advent of the modern, the most widely worn traditional dress in India was draped.[425] For women it took the form of a sari, a single piece of cloth many yards long.[425] The sari was traditionally wrapped around the lower body and the shoulder.[425] In its modern form, it is combined with an underskirt, or Indian petticoat, and tucked in along the waist band for more secure fastening. It is also commonly worn with an Indian blouse, or choli, which serves as the primary upper-body garment, the sari's end—passing over the shoulder—covering the midriff and obscuring the upper body's contours.[425] For men, a similar but shorter length of cloth, the dhoti, has served as a lower-body garment.[426]
The use of stitched clothes became widespread after Muslim rule was established by the Delhi sultanate (c.1300 CE) and continued by the Mughal Empire (c.1525 CE).[427] Among the garments introduced during this time and still commonly worn are: the shalwars and pyjamas, both styles of trousers, and the tunics kurta and kameez.[427] Shalwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom. They are held up by a drawstring, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.[428] When the pants are cut quite narrow, on the bias, they are called churidars. The kameez is a long shirt or tunic.[429] Its side seams left open below the waistline.[430] The kurta is traditionally collarless and made of cotton or silk; it is worn plain or with embroidered decoration, such as chikankari; and typically falls to either just above or just below the wearer's knees.[431]
In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in India. Increasingly, in urban northern India, the sari is no longer the apparel of everyday wear, though they remain popular on formal occasions. The traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who favour churidars or jeans. In office settings, ubiquitous air conditioning allows men to wear sports jackets year-round. For weddings and formal occasions, men in the middle and upper classes often wear bandhgala, or short Nehru jackets, with pants, with the groom and his groomsmen sporting sherwanis and churidars.[432]
Female tourists from Manipur in shawl and phanek—lower-body garment similar to a sarong, and made of a rectangular piece of cloth with one pair of opposite sides stitched together.[433]
The foundation of a typical Indian meal is a cereal cooked plainly and complemented with savoury dishes.[434] The cooked cereal could be steamed rice; chapati, a thin unleavened bread;[435] the idli, a steamed breakfast cake; or dosa, a griddled pancake.[436] The savoury dishes might include lentils, pulses, vegetables, meat, poultry and fish commonly spiced with ginger and garlic, but also coriander, cumin, turmeric, cinnamon, cardamon and others.[434] In some instances, the ingredients may be mixed during the cooking process.[437] India has distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.[438] About 20% to 39% of India's population consists of vegetarians.[439][440] Although meat is eaten widely in India, the proportional consumption of meat in the overall diet is low.[441]
The most significant import of cooking techniques into India during the last millennium occurred during the Mughal Empire. Dishes such as the pilaf,[442][443] and cooking techniques spread into northern India from regions to its northwest.[444] To the simple yogurt marinade of Persia, onions, garlic, almonds, and spices began to be added in India.[444] Rice was partially cooked and layered alternately with the sauteed meat, the pot sealed tightly, and slow cooked according to another Persian cooking technique, to produce biryani,[444] a feature of festive dining in many parts of India.[445]
The diversity of Indian food served worldwide has been partially concealed by the dominance of Punjabi cuisine. The popularity of tandoori chicken—cooked in the tandoor oven, which had traditionally been used for baking bread in the rural Punjab and the Delhi region, especially among Muslims, but which is originally from Central Asia—dates to the 1950s, and was caused in large part by an entrepreneurial response among people from the Punjab who had been displaced by the 1947 partition.[438]
A street-corner game of pachisi in Pushkar, Rajasthan
Indian hockey team, captained by Dhyan Chand (standing second from left), after winning the finals at the 1936 Summer Olympics – their third of six consecutive Olympic golds
↑"[...] Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it."[5]
↑Not all the state-level official languages are in the eighth schedule and not all the scheduled languages are state-level official languages. For example, the Sindhi language is an 8th scheduled but not a state-level official language.
According to Ethnologue, there are 424 living indigenous languages in India, in contrast to 11 extinct indigenous languages. In addition, there are 30 living non-indigenous languages.[10]
Different sources give widely differing figures, primarily based on how the terms "language" and "dialect" are defined and grouped.
↑"The country's exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260km2 (1,269,220sqmi) and the total land area as 3,060,500km2 (1,181,700sqmi); the United Nations lists the total area as 3,287,263km2 (1,269,219sqmi) and total land area as 2,973,190km2 (1,147,960sqmi)."[12]
↑The Government of India also regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all of Kashmir to be part of India.[24] However, this is disputed, and the region bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan.
↑"A Chinese pilgrim also recorded evidence of the caste system as he could observe it. According to this evidence the treatment meted out to untouchables such as the Chandalas was very similar to that which they experienced in later periods. This would contradict assertions that this rigid form of the caste system emerged in India only as a reaction to the Islamic conquest."[39]
↑"All these achievements are dwarfed, though, by the Sanskrit linguistic tradition culminating in the famous grammar by Pāṇini, known as the Aṣṭhādhyāyī. The elegance and comprehensiveness of its architecture have yet to be surpassed by any grammar of any language, and its ingenious methods of stratifying out use and mention, language and metalanguage, and theorem and metatheorem predate key discoveries in western philosophy by millennia."[90]
↑"The Sanskrit grammatical tradition is also the ultimate source of the notion of zero, which, once adopted in the Arabic system of numerals, allowed us to transcend the cumbersome notations of Roman arithmetic."[90]
↑The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, including the Gilgit-Baltistan administered by Pakistan, to be its territory. It therefore assigns the latitude 37° 6′ to its northernmost point.
↑A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographical region which has more than 1,500 vascular plant species, but less than 30% of its primary habitat.[204]
↑The 0% results from rounding to two decimal places.
↑Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction or exclusion defined by cultural notions of purity and pollution.[361]
↑Ancient and medieval Indian mathematical works, all composed in Sanskrit usually consisted of two sections: sutras in which a set of rules or problems were stated with economy in verse, and a prose commentary that explained the problem in more detail and provided justification for the solution.[406][407]
↑Genetic studies have shown that mangos were first domesticated in the region between northeastern India, northwestern Myanmar, and Bangladesh.[449][450]
1234"National Symbols | National Portal of India". India.gov.in. Archived from the original on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 1 March 2017. The National Anthem of India Jana Gana Mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as the National Anthem of India on 24 January 1950.
↑Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p.327: "Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India's achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world's new nations."
↑Stein, Burton (2012). Arnold, David (ed.). A History of India. The Blackwell History of the World Series (2nded.). Wiley-Blackwell. One of these is the idea of India as 'the world's largest democracy', but a democracy forged less by the creation of representative institutions and expanding electorate under British rule than by the endeavours of India's founding fathers – Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar – and the labours of the Constituent Assembly between 1946 and 1949, embodied in the Indian constitution of 1950. This democratic order, reinforced by the regular holding of nationwide elections and polling for the state assemblies, has, it can be argued, consistently underpinned a fundamentally democratic state structure – despite the anomaly of the Emergency and the apparent durability of the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty.
↑Fisher 2018, pp.184–185: "Since 1947, India's internal disputes over its national identity, while periodically bitter and occasionally punctuated by violence, have been largely managed with remarkable and sustained commitment to national unity and democracy."
12Petraglia & Allchin 2007, p.10: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. [...] Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73 and 55 ka."
123Dyson 2018, p.1: "Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. [...] it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present."
12Fisher 2018, p.23: "Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago."
↑Lowe 2015, pp.1–2: "It consists of 1,028 hymns (sūktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India."
Witzel 2003, pp.68–70: "It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); [...] The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalised early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a tape-recording of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. [...] The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000 BCE."
Doniger 2014, pp.xviii, 10: "A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500–1000 BCE Rig Veda; ca. 1200–900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda [...] Hindu texts began with the Rig Veda ('Knowledge of Verses'), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE; the first of the three Vedas, it is the earliest extant text composed in Sanskrit, the language of ancient India."
Ludden 2014, p.19: "In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence 'panch' and 'ab') draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva)."
Dyson 2018, pp.14–15: "Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilisation is no longer believed to have been due to an 'Aryan invasion' it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. [...] It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as 'Arya'—was certainly two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence."
Robb 2011, pp.46–: "The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas."
Jamison & Brereton 2020, pp.2, 4–5: "The Ṛgveda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. [...] Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Viṣṇu and Śiva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Ṛgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Ṛgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity."
Flood 2020, p.4, see note 4: "I take the term 'Hinduism' to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterised by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (jāti/varṇa), participating in practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (pūjā), and a first-level cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being)."
Michaels 2017, p.86: "Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three samskaras (initiation, marriage, and death ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened. Although samskaras vary from region to region, from class (varna) to class, and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the Brahmin priests."
Flood 1996, p.35: "It is this Sanskrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals. The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism."
Glenn Van Brummelen (2014). "Arithmetic". In Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp.46–48. ISBN978-1-135-45932-1.
↑Chiriyankandath, James (2016). Parties and Political Change in South Asia. Routledge. p.2. ISBN978-1-317-58620-3. South Asian parties include several of the oldest in the post-colonial world, foremost among them the 129-year-old Indian National Congress that led India to independence in 1947
↑Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p.202: "The year 1919 was a watershed in the modern history of India. [...] By its end the Montagu–Chelmsford reforms... were enacted. [...] The year, however, also brought the repressive Rowlatt bills and the catastrophe of the Amritsar massacre. For many, if not most, Indians the reforms had become a poisoned chalice. They chose instead a novel course of political action, that of 'non-violent non-cooperation', and a new leader, Mohandas K. Gandhi, only recently returned from twenty years in South Africa. Gandhi would endure as a lasting symbol of moral leadership for the entire world community."
↑Stein 2010, p.289: "Gandhi was the leading genius of the later and ultimately successful campaign for India's independence"
↑Fisher 2018, pp.173–174: "The partition of South Asia that produced India and West and East Pakistan resulted from years of bitter negotiations and recriminations [...] The departing British also decreed that the hundreds of princes, who ruled one-third of the subcontinent and a quarter of its population, became legally independent, their status to be settled later. Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and incentives from the new governments led almost all princes eventually to merge their domains into either Pakistan or India. [...] Each new government asserted its exclusive sovereignty within its borders, realigning all territories, animals, plants, minerals, and all other natural and human-made resources as either Pakistani or Indian property, to be used for its national development... Simultaneously, the central civil and military services and judiciary split roughly along religious 'communal' lines, even as they divided movable government assets according to a negotiated formula: 22.7 percent for Pakistan and 77.3 percent for India."
↑Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (2013). "Introduction: Concepts and Questions". In Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (eds.). Routledge Handbook of the South Asian Diaspora. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-48010-9. Joya Chatterji describes how the partition of the British Indian empire into the new nation states of India and Pakistan produced new diaspora on a vast, and hitherto unprecedented, scale, but hints that the sheer magnitude of refugee movements in South Asia after 1947 must be understood in the context of pre-existing migratory flows within the partitioned regions (see also Chatterji 2013). She also demonstrates that the new national states of India and Pakistan were quickly drawn into trying to stem this migration. As they put into place laws designed to restrict the return of partition emigrants, this produced new dilemmas for both new nations in their treatment of 'overseas Indians'; and many of them lost their right to return to their places of origin in the subcontinent, and also their claims to full citizenship in host countries.
↑Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009). The Partition of India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-85661-4. Archived from the original on 13 December 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2015. When the British divided and quit India in August 1947, they not only partitioned the subcontinent with the emergence of the two nations of India and Pakistan but also the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. ... Indeed for many the Indian subcontinent's division in August 1947 is seen as a unique event which defies comparative historical and conceptual analysis
↑Khan, Yasmin (2017) [2007]. The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (2nded.). New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p.1. ISBN978-0-300-23032-1. South Asians learned that the British Indian empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority live in the countryside, ploughing the land as landless peasants or sharecroppers, it is hardly surprising that many thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, did not hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first that they knew about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India
"Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 13 August 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2019. Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947.
Pletcher, Kenneth. "Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 16 August 2019. Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, ... constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India
Bosworth, C. E (2006). "Kashmir". Encyclopedia Americana: Jefferson to Latin. Scholastic Library Publishing. p.328. ISBN978-0-7172-0139-6. KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partly by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947
↑Paturi, Joseph; Patterson, Roger (2016). "Hinduism (with Hare Krishna)". In Hodge, Bodie; Patterson, Roger (eds.). World Religions & Cults Volume 2: Moralistic, Mythical and Mysticism Religions. United States: New Leaf Publishing Group. pp.59–60. ISBN978-0-89051-922-6. The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the Indus River. The term Hindu originated as a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. Later, Hindu was taken by European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, which referred to the people who lived across the Indus River. This Arabic term was itself taken from the Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name for India, meaning the "land of Hindus."
↑Mattern, Susan (2019). The Slow Moon Climbs: The Science, History, and Meaning of Menopause. Princeton, NJ, and London: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-17163-0. (pages 146—147) All non-African human populations share a common ancestry in the recent past, about 80,000 to 50,000 years ago. Some time within this period, a group of modern humans migrated from Africa, traversed southern Asia, and crossed the sea to the ancient continent of Sahul (now Australia, Tasmania, and Papua New Guinea), picking up Neanderthal and Denisovan genes along the way; branches reached Europe somewhat later, and Americas last. This was not the first migration of anatomically modern humans out of Africa. ... But for the most part, earlier populations of humans around Eurasia sputtered out, returned to Africa, or were replaced by humans from the last migration out of Africa.
↑Glenn Van Brummelen (2014). "Arithmetic". In Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp.46–48. ISBN978-1-135-45932-1. The story of the growth of arithmetic from the ancient inheritance to the wealth passed on to the Renaissance is dramatic and passes through several cultures. The most groundbreaking achievement was the evolution of a positional number system, in which the position of a digit within a number determines its value according to powers (usually) of ten (e.g., in 3,285, the "2" refers to hundreds). Its extension to include decimal fractions and the procedures that were made possible by its adoption transformed the abilities of all who calculated, with an effect comparable to the modern invention of the electronic computer. Roughly speaking, this began in India, was transmitted to Islam, and then to the Latin West.
↑Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. p.58. ISBN978-0-19-879357-1. The term 'Epic Sanskrit' refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. ... It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period.
↑Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. p.58. ISBN978-0-19-879357-1. The term 'Epic Sanskrit' refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. ... It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period.
↑Stein 2010, p.245: An expansion of state functions in British and in princely India occurred as a result of the terrible famines of the later nineteenth century, ... A reluctant regime decided that state resources had to be deployed and that anti-famine measures were best managed through technical experts.
↑Javalgi, Rajshekhar (Raj) G.; Grossman, David A. (2016). "7 Understanding the Characteristics and Entrepreneurial Activities of Middle-Class Consumers in Emerging Markets: The Case of India". In Marsh, Leslie L.; Li, Hongmei (eds.). The Middle Class in Emerging Societies: Consumers, Lifestyles and Markets. Routledge Research in Cultural and Media Studies Series. Routledge. doi:10.4324/978135717692-10. ISBN978-1-138-85882-4. Between now and 2039, India is projected to add over 1 billion people to the global middle class creating the world's fifth-largest consumer market (Dobbs). ... India's middle class saw its largest growth during the early 1990s when economic reforms led to integration into global markets. As Western countries were experiencing economic contraction, India's economy continued to grow above 5 percent.
↑Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p.329Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India's achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world's new nations.
↑Kaul 1970, p.160, "The Aravalli range boldy defines the eastern limit of the arid and semi-arid zone. Probably the more humid conditions that prevail near the Aravallis prevented the extension of aridity towards the east and the Ganges Valley. It is noteworthy that, wherever there are gaps in this range, sand has advanced to the east of it."
↑Prasad 1974, p.372, "The topography of the Indian Desert is dominated by the Aravalli Ranges on its eastern border, which consist largely of tightly folded and highly metamorphosed Archaean rocks."
↑Fisher 2018, p.83, "East of the lower Indus lay the inhospitable Rann of Kutch and Thar Desert. East of the upper Indus lay the more promising but narrow corridor between the Himalayan foothills on the north and the Thar Desert and Aravalli Mountains on the south. At the strategic choke point, just before reaching the fertile, well-watered Gangetic plain, sat Delhi. On this site, where life giving streams running off the most northern spur of the rocky Aravalli ridge flowed into the Jumna river, and where the war-horse and war-elephant trade intersected, a series of dynasties built fortified capitals."
↑Tritsch 2001, p.12India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the rain shadow area of the Deccan Plateau east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Growth is limited only by moisture availability in these areas, so with irrigation the fertile alluvial soil of Punjab and Haryana has been turned into India's prime agricultural area. Much of the thorn forest covering the plains probably had savannah-like features now no longer visible.
↑Ameri, Marta (2018). "Letting the Pictures Speak: An Image-Based Approach to the Mythological and Narrative Imagery of the Harappan World". In Ameri, Marta; Costello, Sarah Kielt; Jamison, Gregg; Scott, Sarah Jarmer (eds.). Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp.156–157. ISBN978-1-108-17351-3. Quote: "The last of the centaurs has the long, wavy, horizontal horns of a markhor, a human face, a heavy-set body that appears bovine, and a goat tail ... This figure is often depicted by itself, but it is also consistently represented in scenes that seem to reflect the adoration of a figure in a pipal tree or arbour and which may be termed ritual. These include fully detailed scenes like that visible in the large 'divine adoration' seal from Mohenjo-daro."
↑Tritsch 2001, p.15Before it was so heavily settled and intensively exploited, the Punjab was dominated by thorn forest interspersed by rolling grasslands which were grazed on by millions of Blackbuck, accompanied by their dominant predator, the Cheetah. Always keen hunters, the Moghul princes kept tame cheetahs which were used to chase and bring down the Blackbuck. Today the Cheetah is extinct in India and the severely endangered Blackbuck no longer exists in the Punjab.
↑Storm, Eric (2024). Nationalism: A World History. Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-23309-3. LCCN2024015293. The whole constellation changed when India and Pakistan gained independence as dominions, which was a solution that made possible a speedier withdrawal of the British. In the end, India decided to become a republic, although the leadership preferred to remain within the Commonwealth.
↑(a) Guyot-Rechard, Berenice (2017). Shadow States: India, China and the Himalayas, 1910–1962. Cambridge University Press. p.235. ISBN978-1-107-17679-9. By invading NEFA, the PRC did not just aim to force a humiliated India to recognise its possession of the Aksai Chin. It also hoped to get, once and for all, the upper hand in their shadowing competition. (b) Chubb, Andrew (2021). "The Sino-Indian Border Crisis: Chinese Perceptions of Indian Nationalism". In Golley, Jane; Jaivan, Linda; Strange, Sharon (eds.). Crisis. Australian National University Press. pp.231–232. ISBN978-1-76046-439-4. The ensuing cycle of escalation culminated in the 1962 Sino-Indian border war in which Mao Zedong's troops overran almost the entire state of Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern sector before unilaterally withdrawing, as if to underline the insult; most of the war's several thousand casualties were Indian. The PLA's decisive victories in the 1962 war not only humiliated the Indian Army, they also entrenched a status quo in Ladakh that was highly unfavourable for India, in which China controls almost all of the disputed territory. A nationalistic press and commentariat have kept 1962 vivid in India's popular consciousness. (c) Lintner, Bertil (2018). China's India War: Collision Course on the Roof of the World. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-909163-8. Lin Biao was put in charge of the operation and that alliance between Mao and his loyal de facto chief of the PLA made the attack on India possible. With China's ultimate victory in the war, Mao's ultra-leftist line had won in China; whatever critical voices that were left in the Party after all the purges fell silent. (d) Medcalf, Rory (2020). Indo-Pacific Empire: China, America and the contest for the world's pivotal. Manchester University Press. ISBN978-1-5261-5077-6. From an Indian perspective, the China-India war of 1962 was a shocking betrayal of the principles of co-operation and coexistence: a surprise attack that humiliated India and personally broke Nehru. (e) Ganguly, Sumit (1997). The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hope of Peace. Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press. p.44. ISBN978-0-521-65566-8. In October 1962 India suffered the most humiliating military debacle in its post-independence history, at the hands of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA). The outcome of this conflict had far-reaching consequences for Indian foreign and defence policies. The harsh defeat that the Chinese PLA had inflicted on the Indian Army called into question some of the most deeply held precepts of Nehru's foreign and defence policies. (f) Raghavan, Srinath (2019). "A Missed Opportunity? The Nehru-Zhou Enlai Summit of 1960". In Bhagavan, Manu (ed.). India and the Cold War. University of North Carolina Press. p.121. ISBN978-1-4696-5117-0. The 'forward policy' adopted by India to prevent the Chinese from occupying territory claimed by them was undertaken in the mistaken belief that Beijing would be cautious in dealing with India owing to Moscow's stance on the dispute and its growing proximity to India. These misjudgments would eventually culminate in India's humiliating defeat in the war of October–November 1962.
↑Muir, Hugh (13 July 2009). "Diary". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 17 October 2021. Members of the Indian armed forces have the plum job of leading off the great morning parade for Bastille Day. Only after units and bands from India's navy and air force have followed the Maratha Light Infantry will the parade be entirely given over to ... France's armed services.
↑Kapoor, Mudit; Shamika, Ravi (10 February 2014). "India's missing women". The Hindu. Retrieved 17 November 2019. In the last 50 years of Indian democracy, the absolute number of missing women has increased fourfold from 15 million to 68 million. This is not merely a reflection of the overall population growth, but rather a worsening of the dangerous trend over time. As a percentage of the female electorate, missing women have gone up significantly — from 13 per cent to approximately 20 per cent
↑"More than 63 million women 'missing' in India, statistics show". Associated Press via The Guardian. 30 January 2018. Retrieved 17 November 2019. Quote: "More than 63 million women are "missing" statistically across India, and more than 21 million girls are unwanted by their families, government officials say. The skewed ratio of men to women is largely the result of sex-selective abortions, and better nutrition and medical care for boys, according to the government's annual economic survey, which was released on Monday. In addition, the survey found that "families where a son is born are more likely to stop having children than families where a girl is born".
1234Jolad, Shivakumar; Agarwal, Aayush (2024). "Mapping India's Linguistic Diversity and Exclusion in the Indian Census 1". In Dodd, Maya; Menon, Nirmala (eds.). Practices of Digital Humanities in India: Learning by Doing. Routledge India. doi:10.4324/9781003325239.
1234Lerner, Hanna (2016). "The Indian Founding: A Comparative Perspective". In Choudhry, Sujit; Khosla, Madhav; Mehta, Pratap Bhanu (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Constitution. Oxford University Press. pp.63–64. ISBN978-0-19-870489-8. Ultimately, it was the pragmatic consensus-seeking approach that triumphed. On 14 September 1949, after three years of debate, the assembly overwhelmingly approved a compromise resolution, known as the Munshi—Ayyangar formula, which later became Articles 343-51 of the Indian Constitution. Instead of declaring a 'national language', Hindi was labelled the 'official language of the Union', while English was to continue to be used 'for all official purposes'. It was decided that this arrangement would apply for a period of fifteen years, during which time Hindi was to be progressively introduced into official use. What would happen at the end of this interim period was left undetermined, with the Constitution providing for the establishment of a parliamentary committee to examine the issue in the future. In addition, the Constitution recognised fourteen other languages for official use (listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution). ... Fifteen years after the enactment of the Constitution, Hindi was still not widely used by the Union government. Following a series of violent riots in non-Hindi-speaking States in the 1960s, Parliament renounced the ideal of an Indian national language. In 1965, when the fifteen-year interim period prescribed by the Constitution elapsed, the government announced that English would remain the de facto formal language of India.
1234Isaka, Riho (2021). Language, Identity, and Power in Modern India: Gujarat, c. 1850–1960. Routledge New Horizons in South Asian Studies. Routledge. pp.126–197. ISBN978-1-000-46858-8. Partition may have 'killed' Hindustani, but it had a marked effect on the debates regarding the position of English and provincial languages in the Constitution. The Hindi protagonists became even more insistent on establishing Hindi as the sole national language and imposing it on the non-Hindi-speaking regions to enhance 'national unity'. In addition, these leaders even began to argue that the Devanagari form of numerals should be used instead of the international form. This was firmly opposed by members from South India. To solve the continuing dispute among the Assembly members, (K. M.) Munshi and N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar, a Tamil member of the Assembly, drew up detailed language provisions. These, in the words of the latter, represented a 'compromise between opinions not easily reconcilable' (Constituent Assembly Debates 1X 1966: 1319). The provisions were proposed to the Congress on 2nd September 1949 and engendered a heated discussion. It was eventually decided that they would be proposed in the Assembly by Munshi, Ayyangar, and Bhimrao Ambedkar (the Chairman of the Drafting Committee) in their personal capacities, not as an official proposal on behalf of the Drafting Committee.
↑Annamalai, E. (2008). "Contexts of multilingualism". In Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar (eds.). Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp.223–. ISBN978-1-139-46550-2. Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost.
↑Gazzola, Michele; Wickström, Bengt-Arne (2016). The Economics of Language Policy. MIT Press. pp.469–. ISBN978-0-262-03470-8. The Eighth Schedule recognizes India's national languages as including the major regional languages as well as others, such as Sanskrit and Urdu, which contribute to India's cultural heritage. ... The original list of fourteen languages in the Eighth Schedule at the time of the adoption of the Constitution in 1949 has now grown to twenty-two.
↑Groff, Cynthia (2017). The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in the Himalayan Foothills. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp.58–. ISBN978-1-137-51961-0. As Mahapatra says: "It is generally believed that the significance for the Eighth Schedule lies in providing a list of languages from which Hindi is directed to draw the appropriate forms, style and expressions for its enrichment" ... Being recognized in the Constitution, however, has had significant relevance for a language's status and functions.
12Headrick, Daniel R. (1988). The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850–1940. New York: Oxford University Press. p.317. ISBN0-19-505115-7. The first engineering college was an outgrowth of the Ganges Canal. Named after the lieutenant governor of the North-Western Provinces who founded it in 1847, the Thomason Engineering College at Roorkee trained employees for the irrigation branch of the Public Works Department. It offered different curricula for different types of students: an engineering class for domiciled Europeans and a few Indians, an upper subordinates class to train British noncommissioned officers as construction foremen, and a lower subordinates class to train Indian surveyors. By the mid-1880s, the school has a hundred students, substantial buildings, and a reputation as an important center for the study of hydraulic engineering.
12Subramanian, Ajantha (2019). The Caste of Merit: Engineering Education in India. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press. pp.30–31. ISBN978-0-674-98788-3. Before the 1854 despatch, there was already one engineering college in operation: the Thomason College of Civil Engineering at Roorkee. The college was founded in 1847 and was affiliated to the University of Calcutta, in response to the demand for civil engineers to aid the construction of the Ganges Canal in the North-west Provinces.
Lagasse, Paul, ed. (2007). "Caste". The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN978-0-231-14446-9. Retrieved 24 September 2012. Quote: "caste [Port., casta=basket], ranked groups based on heredity within rigid systems of social stratification, especially those that constitute Hindu India. Some scholars, in fact, deny that true caste systems are found outside India. The caste is a closed group whose members are severely restricted in their choice of occupation and degree of social participation. Marriage outside the caste is prohibited. Social status is determined by the caste of one's birth and may only rarely be transcended."
Madan, T. N. (2012). caste. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Quote: "caste, any of the ranked, hereditary, endogamous social groups, often linked with occupation, that together constitute traditional societies in South Asia, particularly among Hindus in India. Although sometimes used to designate similar groups in other societies, the "caste system" is uniquely developed in Hindu societies."
Gupta, Dipankar (2008). "Caste". In Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. pp.246–250. ISBN978-1-4129-2694-2. Retrieved 5 August 2012. Quote: "Caste: What makes Indian society unique is the phenomenon of caste. Economic, religious, and linguistic differentiations, even race-based discrimination, are known elsewhere, but nowhere else does one see caste but in India."
Béteille 2002, pp.136–137. Quote: "Caste: Caste has been described as the fundamental social institution of India. Sometimes the term is used metaphorically to refer to rigid social distinctions or extreme social exclusiveness wherever found, and some authorities have used the term 'colour-caste system' to describe the stratification based on race in the United States and elsewhere. But it is among the Hindus in India that we find the system in its most fully developed form although analogous forms exist among Muslims, Christians. Sikhs and other religious groups in South Asia. It is an ancient institution, having existed for at least 2,000 years among the Hindus who developed not only elaborate caste practices hut also a complex theory to explain and justify those practices (Dumont 1970). The theory has now lost much of its force although many of the practices continue."
Mitchell, Geoffrey Duncan (2006). "Castes (part of SOCIAL STRATIFICATION)". A New Dictionary of the Social Sciences. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transaction Publishers. pp.194–195. ISBN978-0-202-30878-4. Retrieved 10 August 2012. Quote:"Castes A pure caste system is rooted in the religious order and may be thought of as a hierarchy of hereditary, endogamous, occupational groups with positions fixed and mobility barred by ritual distances between each caste. Empirically, the classical Hindu system of India approximated most closely to pure caste. The system existed for some 3,000 years and continues today despite many attempts to get rid of some of its restrictions. It is essentially connected with Hinduism."
"caste, n.". Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition; online version June 2012. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1989. Retrieved 5 August 2019. Quote: "caste, n. 2a. spec. One of the several hereditary classes into which society in India has from time immemorial been divided; ... This is now the leading sense, which influences all others."
12Atrey, Shreya (2019). Intersectional Discrimination. Oxford, UK and New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p.63–64. ISBN978-0-19-884895-0.
↑"Indians Outlaw 'Untouchability' In Formal Action by Assembly; UNTOUCHABILITY' FORMALLY BANNED". Reuters/New York Times. 30 April 1947. NEW DELHI, India, April 29 -- India's Constituent Assembly, discussing the Fundamental Rights Committee's report, today adopted this provision: "Untouchability in any form is abolished and the imposition of any disability on that account shall be an offense.
↑Teltumbde, Anand (2010). The Persistence of Caste: The Khairlanji Murders and India's Hidden Apartheid. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN978-1-84813-449-2.
↑Agarwal, Bina (1994). A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. p.264. ISBN978-0-521-42926-9. Mayer's (1960: 219) observation for central India would not be inaccurate for most communities in the subcontinent: "A man's tie with his sister is accounted very close. The two have grown up together, at an age when there is no distinction made between the sexes. And later, when the sister marries, the brother is seen as her main protector, for when her father has died to whom else can she turn if there is trouble in her conjugal household.(Adrian C. Mayer, Caste and kinship in Central India (1960)" The parental home, and after the parents' death the brother's home, often offers the only possibility of temporary or longer-term support in case of divorce, desertion, and even widowhood, especially for a woman without adult sons. Her dependence on this support is directly related to economic and social vulnerability.
↑Coleman, Leo (2017). A Moral Technology: Electrification as Political Ritual in New Delhi. Cornell University Press. p.127. ISBN978-1-5017-0791-9. Quote: Rakhi and its local performances in Kishan Garhi were part of a festival in which connections between out-marrying sisters and village-resident brothers were affirmed. In the "traditional" form of this rite, according to Marriott, sisters exchanged with their brothers to ensure their ability to have recourse—at a crisis, or during childbearing—to their natal village and their relatives there even after leaving for their husband's home. For their part, brothers engaging in these exchanges affirmed the otherwise hard-to-discern moral solidarity of the natal family, even after their sister's marriage.
↑(Ifrah 2000, p.346): "The measure of the genius of Indian civilisation, to which we owe our modern (number) system, is all the greater in that it was the only one in all history to have achieved this triumph. Some cultures succeeded, earlier than the Indian, in discovering one or at best two of the characteristics of this intellectual feat. But none of them managed to bring together into a complete and coherent system the necessary and sufficient conditions for a number-system with the same potential as our own."
↑(Bourbaki 1998, p.46): "...our decimal system, which (by the agency of the Arabs) is derived from Hindu mathematics, where its use is attested already from the first centuries of our era. It must be noted moreover that the conception of zero as a number and not as a simple symbol of separation) and its introduction into calculations, also count amongst the original contribution of the Hindus."
↑(Bourbaki 1998, p.49): Modern arithmetic was known during medieval times as "Modus Indorum" or method of the Indians. Leonardo of Pisa wrote that compared to method of the Indians all other methods is a mistake. This method of the Indians is none other than our very simple arithmetic of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Rules for these four simple procedures was first written down by Brahmagupta during the 7th century AD. "On this point, the Hindus are already conscious of the interpretation that negative numbers must have in certain cases (a debt in a commercial problem, for instance). In the following centuries, as there is a diffusion into the West (by intermediary of the Arabs) of the methods and results of Greek and Hindu mathematics, one becomes more used to the handling of these numbers, and one begins to have other "representation" for them which are geometric or dynamic."
12"algebra" 2007. Britannica Concise EncyclopediaArchived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine . Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 May 2007. Quote: "A full-fledged decimal, positional system certainly existed in India by the 9th century (AD), yet many of its central ideas had been transmitted well before that time to China and the Islamic world. Indian arithmetic, moreover, developed consistent and correct rules for operating with positive and negative numbers and for treating zero like any other number, even in problematic contexts such as division. Several hundred years passed before European mathematicians fully integrated such ideas into the developing discipline of algebra."
↑(Pingree 2003, p.45) Quote: "Geometry, and its branch trigonometry, was the mathematics Indian astronomers used most frequently. Greek mathematicians used the full chord and never imagined the half chord that we use today. Half chord was first used by Aryabhata which made trigonometry much more simple. In fact, the Indian astronomers in the third or fourth century, using a pre-Ptolemaic Greek table of chords, produced tables of sines and versines, from which it was trivial to derive cosines. This new system of trigonometry, produced in India, was transmitted to the Arabs in the late eighth century and by them, in an expanded form, to the Latin West and the Byzantine East in the twelfth century."
↑(Bourbaki 1998, p.126): "As for trigonometry, it is disdained by geometers and abandoned to surveyors and astronomers; it is these latter (Aristarchus, Hipparchus, Ptolemy) who establish the fundamental relations between the sides and angles of a right angled triangle (plane or spherical) and draw up the first tables (they consist of tables giving the chord of the arc cut out by an angle on a circle of radius r, in other words the number ; the introduction of the sine, more easily handled, is due to Hindu mathematicians of the Middle Ages)."
↑Hardy, G. H. (2015) [1927]. "Notice". Collected papers of Srinivasa Ramanujan. Cambridge University Press. pp.xxi–xxxv. ISBN978-1-107-53651-7. It was his insight into algebraical formulae, tranformation of infinite series, ... that was most amazing. On this side most certainly I have never met his equal, and I can compare him only with Euler and Jacobi. He worked, far more than the majority of modern mathematicians, by induction from numerical examples. ... But with his memory, his patience, and his power of calculation, he combined a power of generalisation, a feeling for form, and a capacity for rapid modification of his hypotheses, that were often really startling, and made him, in his own peculiar field, without a rival in his day.
↑Capwell, Charles (2012). "The Music of India". Excursions in World Music (6thed.). Pearson. pp.31, 52.
↑Lavezzoli, Peter (24 April 2006). The Dawn of Indian Music in the West. p.14.
12345678910111213Vatsyayan, Kapila; Lord, Maria (revision) (2020) [2001]. "India, subcontinent of, IX. Dance". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press.
↑Frank Burch Brown (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Religion and the Arts. Oxford University Press. pp.195–196. ISBN978-0-19-972103-0., Quote: All of the dances considered to be part of the Indian classical canon (Bharata Natyam, Chhau, Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Mohiniattam, Odissi, Sattriya, and Yakshagana) trace their roots to religious practices (...) the Indian diaspora has led to the translocation of Hindu dances to Europe, North America and the world."}}
↑Haripriya, Soibam (2024). "Irom Sharmila's Poetry and the Problem of Anthologizing Indian Literature". In Anjaria, Ulka; Nerleker, Anjali= (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Modern Indian Literatures. Oxford University Press. p.423. ISBN978-0-19-764791-2.
↑Davidson, Alan (2014). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford University Press. p.161. ISBN978-0-19-967733-7. Chapatis are made from finely milled whole-wheat flour, called chapati flour or atta, and water. The dough is rolled into thin rounds which vary in size from region to region and then cooked without fat or oil on a slightly curved griddle called a tava.
↑Tamang, J. P.; Fleet, G. H. (2009). "Yeasts Diversity in Fermented Foods and Beverages". In Satyanarayana, T.; Kunze, G. (eds.). Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications. Springer. p.180. ISBN978-1-4020-8292-4. Idli is an acid-leavened and steamed cake made by bacterial fermentation of a thick batter made from coarsely ground rice and dehulled black gram. Idli cakes are soft, moist and spongy, have desirable sour flavour, and is eaten as breakfast in South India. Dosa batter is very similar to idli batter, except that both the rice and black gram are finely grounded. The batter is thinner than that of idli and is fried as a thin, crisp pancake and eaten directly in South India.
↑Jhala, Angma Day (2015). Royal Patronage, Power and Aesthetics in Princely India. Routledge. p.70. ISBN978-1-317-31657-2. With the ascent of the Mughal Empire in sixteenth-century India, Turkic, Persian and Afghan traditions of dress, 'architecture and cuisine' were adopted by non-Muslim indigenous elites in South Asia. In this manner, Central Asian cooking merged with older traditions within the subcontinent, to create such signature dishes as biryani (a fusion of the Persian pilau and the spice-laden dishes of Hindustan), and the Kashmiri meat stew of Rogan Josh. It not only generated new dishes and entire cuisines, but also fostered novel modes of eating. Such newer trends included the consumption of Persian condiments, which relied heavily on almonds, pastries and quince jams, alongside Indian achars made from sweet limes, green vegetables and curds as side relishes during Mughlai meals.
↑Sengupta, Jayanta (2014). "India". In Freedman, Paul; Chaplin, Joyce E.; Albala, Ken (eds.). Food in Time and Place: The American Historical Association Companion to Food History. University of California Press. p.74. ISBN978-0-520-27745-8.
↑Kohli, Megha (2023). "Breads". In Taylor Sen, Colleen; Bhattacharyya, Sourish; Saberi, Helen (eds.). The Blooomsbury Handbook of Indian Cuisine. London, New York, and Dublin: Bloomsbury Publishing. p.60. ISBN978-1-3501-2863-7. Khamiri roti is the Indian version of sourdough bread. "Khamir" means yeast or starter in Urdu. ... It is made in a tandoor. ... The culture of purchasaing breads from outside is Central Asian and came to India with the Mughals. The best khamiri roti is sold in various shops in Old Delhi run by people who claim to be the direct descendants of the cooks who worked for the Mughals and use the same recipe as their ancestors.
↑Srinivasan, Radhika; Jermyn, Leslie; Lek, Hui Hui (2001). India. Times Books International. p.109. ISBN978-981-232-184-8. Quote: "Girls in India usually play jump rope, or hopscotch, and five stones, tossing the stones up in the air and catching them in many different ways ... the coconut-plucking contests, groundnut-eating races, ... of rural India."
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1,428,627,663 [13] (1st)
$17.647 trillion [16] (3rd)
25.5 [17] 
