Dominion of Pakistan

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Pakistan
پاکستان (Urdu)
পাকিস্তান (Bengali)
1947–1956 [1]
Anthem:  Qaumi Taranah (1954–56)
Dominion of Pakistan & Indian Controlled Kashmir (orthographic projection).svg
Land controlled by the Dominion of Pakistan shown in dark green; land claimed but not controlled shown in light green
Capital Karachi
Official languages English [lower-roman 1]
Recognised national languages Urdu [lower-roman 2] , Bengali [lower-roman 3]
Demonym(s) Pakistani
Government Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Monarch  
 1947–1952
George VI
 1952–1956
Elizabeth II
Governor-General  
 1947–1948
Muhammad Ali Jinnah
 1948–1951
Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin
 1951–1955
Sir Ghulam Muhammad
 1955–1956
Iskander Mirza
Prime Minister  
 1947–1951
Liaquat Ali Khan
 1951–1953
Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin
 1953–1955
Mohammad Ali Bogra
 1955–1956
Chaudhry Mohammad Ali
Legislature Constituent Assembly
History 
14 August 1947 [2]
23 March 1956
Area
 Total
1,030,373 km2 (397,829 sq mi)
Currency Indian rupee (1947–1948)
Pakistani rupee (1948–1956)
Preceded by
Succeeded by
British Raj Red Ensign.svg British Raj
Islamic Republic of Pakistan Flag of Pakistan.svg
Today part of Pakistan
Bangladesh [lower-alpha 1]
  1. Official Language: 14 August 1947
  2. First National Language: 23 February 1948
  3. Second National Language: 29 February 1956

The Dominion of Pakistan, officially Pakistan, [3] was an independent federal dominion in the British Commonwealth of Nations, existing between 14 August 1947 and 23 March 1956, created by the passing of the Indian Independence Act 1947 by the British parliament, which also created an independent Dominion of India.

Contents

Before its independence, Pakistan consisted of those Presidencies and provinces of British India which were allocated to it in the Partition of India. Until 1947, they had been ruled by the United Kingdom as a part of the British Empire.

During the year that followed its independence, the new country was joined by the Princely states of Pakistan ruled by princes who had previously been in subsidiary alliances with the British, which acceded to Pakistan, one by one, with their rulers signing Instruments of Accession. For many years, these states enjoyed a special status within the dominion and later the republic, but they were slowly incorporated into the provinces. The last remnants of their internal self-government had been lost by 1974.

Initially, the Dominion of Pakistan had two wings, one in the East, which is now Bangladesh, and another in the West, which is now Pakistan. After the Constitution of Pakistan of 1956 came into effect, the Pakistani monarchy was abolished, when the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was proclaimed.

The status as a federal dominion within the British Empire ended in 1956 with the completion of the Constitution of Pakistan, which established the country as a republic. The constitution also administratively split the nation into West Pakistan and East Pakistan, which were until then governed as a singular entity, despite being separate geographic exclaves. In 1971 following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, East Pakistan seceded as the new nation of Bangladesh, whereas West Pakistan became Pakistan.

History

Partition and independence

Section 1 of the Indian Independence Act 1947 provided that from "the fifteenth day of August, nineteen hundred and forty-seven, two independent dominions shall be set up in India, to be known respectively as India and Pakistan." The British monarch became the head of state of both the new dominions, with Pakistan sharing a king with the United Kingdom and the other dominions of the British Commonwealth, and the monarch's constitutional roles in Pakistan were delegated to the Governor-General of Pakistan.

Before August 1947, about half of the area of present-day Pakistan was part of British India, which was directly governed by the British in the name of the British Crown, while the remainder were princely states in subsidiary alliances with the British, enjoying semi-autonomous self-government. The British abandoned these alliances in August 1947, leaving the states entirely independent, and between 1947 and 1948 the states all acceded to Pakistan, while retaining internal self-government for several years.

More than ten million people migrated across the new borders and between 200,000–2,000,000 [4] [5] [6] [7] people died in the spate of communal violence in the Punjab in what some scholars have described as a 'retributive genocide' between the religions. [8] The Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men and similarly the Indian government claimed that Muslims abducted and raped 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women. [9] [10] [11] The two governments agreed to repatriate abducted women and thousands of Hindu, Sikh and Muslim women were repatriated to their families in the 1950s. The dispute over Kashmir escalated into the first war between India and Pakistan. With the assistance of the United Nations (UN) the war was ended but it became the Kashmir dispute, unresolved as of 2024.

A 1950 documentary about Pakistan

In 1947, the founding fathers of Pakistan agreed to appoint Liaquat Ali Khan as the country's first prime minister, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah as both first governor-general and speaker of the State Parliament. [12] Mountbatten had offered to serve as Governor-general of both India and Pakistan but Jinnah refused this offer. [13]

The first formal step to transform Pakistan into an ideological Islamic state was taken in March 1949 when Liaquat Ali Khan introduced the Objectives Resolution in the Constituent Assembly. The Objectives Resolution declared that sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to Allah. Support for the Objectives Resolution and the transformation of Pakistan into an Islamic state was led by Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, a respected Deobandi alim (scholar) who occupied the position of Shaykh al-Islam in Pakistan in 1949, and Maulana Mawdudi of Jamaat-i Islami. [14] [15]

Indian Muslims from the United Provinces, Bombay Province, Central Provinces and other areas of India continued migrating to Pakistan throughout the 1950 and 1960s and settled mainly in urban Sindh, particularly in the new country's first capital, Karachi. [16] Prime Minister Ali Khan established a strong government and had to face challenges soon after gaining the office. [12] His Finance Secretary Victor Turner announced the country's first monetary policy by establishing the State Bank, the Federal Bureau of Statistics and the Federal Board of Revenue to improve statistical knowledge, finance, taxation, and revenue collection in the country. [17] There were also problems because India cut off water supply to Pakistan from two canal headworks in its side of Punjab on 1 April 1948 and also withheld delivering Pakistan its share of the assets and funds of United India, which the Indian government released after Gandhi's pressurisation. [18]

Political unrest

In a 1948 speech, Jinnah declared that "Urdu alone would be the state language and the lingua franca of the Pakistan state", although at the same time he called for the Bengali language to be the official language of the Bengal province. [19] Nonetheless, tensions began to grow in East Bengal. [19] Jinnah's health further deteriorated and he died in 1948. Bengali leader, Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin succeeded as the governor general of Pakistan. [20]

During a massive political rally in 1951, Prime Minister Ali Khan was assassinated, and Nazimuddin became the second prime minister. [12] Tensions in East Pakistan reached a climax in 1952, when the East Pakistani police opened fire on students protesting for the Bengali language to receive equal status with Urdu. The situation was controlled by Nazimuddin who issued a waiver granting the Bengali language equal status, a right codified in the 1956 constitution. In 1953 at the instigation of religious parties, anti-Ahmadiyya riots erupted, which led to many Ahmadi deaths. [21] The riots were investigated by a two-member court of inquiry in 1954, [22] which was criticised by the Jamaat-e-Islami, one of the parties accused of inciting the riots. [23] This event led to the first instance of martial law in the country and began the history of military intervention into the politics and civilian affairs of the country. [24] In 1954 the controversial One Unit Program was imposed by the last Pakistan Muslim League (PML) Prime minister Ali Bogra dividing Pakistan on the German geopolitical model. [25] The same year the first legislative elections were held in Pakistan, which saw the communists gaining control of East Pakistan. [26] The 1954 election results clarified the differences in ideology between West and East Pakistan, with East Pakistan under the influence of the Communist Party allying with the Shramik Krishak Samajbadi Dal (Workers Party) and the Awami League. [26] The pro-American Republican Party gained a majority in West Pakistan, ousting the PML government. [26] After a vote of confidence in Parliament and the promulgation of the 1956 constitution, which confirmed Pakistan as an Islamic republic, two notable figures became prime minister and president, as the first Bengali leaders of the country. Huseyn Suhrawardy became the prime minister leading a communist-socialist alliance, and Iskander Mirza became the first president of Pakistan. [27]

Radcliffe Line and territory

Mountbatten's proposed flag for Pakistan, consisting of the flag of the Muslim League defaced with a Union Jack in the canton. Mountbatten Proposed Flag of Pakistan.svg
FIAV proposal.svg Mountbatten's proposed flag for Pakistan, consisting of the flag of the Muslim League defaced with a Union Jack in the canton.

The dominion began as a federation of five provinces: East Bengal (later to become Bangladesh), West Punjab, Balochistan, Sindh, and the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP). Each province had its own governor, who was appointed by the Governor-General of Pakistan. In addition, over the following year the princely states of Pakistan, which covered a significant area of West Pakistan, acceded to Pakistan. They included Bahawalpur, Khairpur, Swat, Dir, Chitral, and the Khanate of Kalat.

The controversial Radcliffe Award, not published until 17 August 1947 specified the Radcliffe Line which demarcated the border between the parts of British India allocated to the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan. The Radcliffe Boundary Commission sought to separate the Muslim-majority regions in the east and northwest from the areas with a Hindu majority. This entailed the partition of two British provinces which did not have a uniform majority Bengal and Punjab. The western part of Punjab became the Pakistani province of Punjab and the eastern part became the Indian state of Punjab. Bengal was similarly divided into East Bengal (in Pakistan) and West Bengal (in India).

Monarchy and the Commonwealth

The Prime minister of Pakistan, Mohammad Ali Bogra (second from left) with the Queen of Pakistan and other Commonwealth leaders, 1955 Bogra and the Commonwealth.jpg
The Prime minister of Pakistan, Mohammad Ali Bogra (second from left) with the Queen of Pakistan and other Commonwealth leaders, 1955

Under the Indian Independence Act 1947, British India was to be divided into the independent sovereign states of India and Pakistan. From 1947 to 1952, George VI was the sovereign of Pakistan, which shared the same person as its sovereign with the United Kingdom and the other Dominions in the British Commonwealth of Nations. [28] [29]

Following George VI's death on 6 February 1952, his elder daughter Princess Elizabeth, who was in Kenya at that time, became the new monarch of Pakistan. During the Queen's coronation in 1953, Elizabeth II was crowned as Queen of seven independent Commonwealth countries, including Pakistan. [30] In her Coronation Oath, the new Queen promised "to govern the Peoples of ... Pakistan ... according to their respective laws and customs". [31] The Standard of Pakistan at the Coronation was borne by Mirza Abol Hassan Ispahani. [32]

Pakistan abolished the monarchy on the adoption of a republican constitution on 23 March 1956. [33] However, Pakistan became a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations. The Queen sent a message to President Mirza which said, "I have followed with close interest the progress of your country since its establishment ... It is a source of great satisfaction to me to know that your country intends to remain within the Commonwealth. I am confident that Pakistan and other countries of the Commonwealth will continue to thrive and to benefit from their mutual association". [34]

Foreign relations

Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan meeting President Harry Truman Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan President Truman.jpg
Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan meeting President Harry Truman

Territorial problems arose with neighbouring Afghanistan over the Pakistan–Afghanistan border in 1949, and with India over the Line of Control in Kashmir. [12] Diplomatic recognition became a problem when the Soviet Union led by Joseph Stalin did not welcome the partition which established Pakistan and India. The Imperial State of Iran was the first country to recognise Pakistan in 1947. [35] In 1948, Ben-Gurion of Israel sent a secret courier to Jinnah to establish the diplomatic relations, but Jinnah did not give any response to Ben-Gurion.

After gaining Independence, Pakistan vigorously pursued bilateral relations with other Muslim countries [36] and made a wholehearted bid for leadership of the Muslim world, or at least for leadership in achieving its unity. [37] The Ali brothers had sought to project Pakistan as the natural leader of the Islamic world, in large part due to its large population and military strength. [38] A top ranking Muslim League leader, Khaliquzzaman, declared that Pakistan would bring together all Muslim countries into Islamistan – a pan-Islamic entity. [39] The USA, which did not approve of Pakistan's creation, was against this idea and British Prime Minister Clement Attlee voiced international opinion at the time by stating that he wished that India and Pakistan would re-unite, as opposed to the hoped-for unity of Muslim World. [40] Since most of the Arab world was undergoing a nationalist awakening at the time, there was little attraction in Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations. [41] Some of the Arab countries saw the 'Islamistan' project as a Pakistani attempt to dominate other Muslim states. [42] Pakistan vigorously championed the right of self-determination for Muslims around the world. Pakistan's efforts for the independence movements of Indonesia, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and Eritrea were significant and initially led to close ties between these countries and Pakistan. [43]

List of heads of state

Monarchs

From 1947 to 1956, Pakistan was a constitutional monarchy. The Pakistani monarch was the same person as the sovereign of the nations in the British Commonwealth of Nations. [44] [29]

PortraitNameBirthReignDeathConsortRelationship with Predecessor(s)Royal House
King George VI LOC matpc.14736 (cleaned).jpg George VI 14 December 189514 August 1947

6 February 1952
6 February 1952 Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother portrait.jpg

Queen Elizabeth

None (position created); Emperor of India before partition Windsor
Queen Elizabeth II official portrait for 1959 tour (retouched) (cropped) (3-to-4 aspect ratio).jpg Elizabeth II 21 April 19266 February 1952

23 March 1956
8 September 2022 Duke of Edinburgh 33 Allan Warren.jpg

Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh

Daughter of George VI

Governors-General

The Governor-General was the representative of the monarch in the Dominion of Pakistan. [45]

PictureName

(birth–death)

Took officeLeft officeAppointer
Jinnah1945c.jpg Muhammad Ali Jinnah

(1876–1948)

15 August 194711 September 1948 King George VI LOC matpc.14736 (cleaned).jpg

George VI

Khawaja Nazimuddin.jpg Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin

(1894–1964)

14 September 194817 October 1951
Malik Muhammad.jpg Sir Ghulam Muhammad

(1895–1956)

17 October 19517 August 1955
Queen Elizabeth II official portrait for 1959 tour (retouched) (cropped) (3-to-4 aspect ratio).jpg

Elizabeth II

Iskander Mirza.jpg Iskander Mirza

(1899–1969)

7 August 195523 March 1956

See also

Notes

  1. See territorial exchanges between India and Bangladesh (India–Bangladesh enclaves).

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Partition of India</span> 1947 division of British India

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Muhammad Ali Jinnah's 11 August Speech</span> 1947 speech made by Pakistans founding father, Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Muhammad Ali Jinnah's 11 August Speech is a speech made by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, founding father of Pakistan and known as Quaid-e-Azam to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. While Pakistan was created as a result of what could be described as Indian Muslim nationalism, Jinnah was once an ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity. When the Partition of India finally occurred, Jinnah, soon-to-be Governor-General of the Dominion of Pakistan, outlined his vision of Pakistan in an address to the Constituent Assembly, delivered on 11 August 1947. He spoke of an inclusive and impartial government, religious freedom, rule of law ,and equality for all.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1947 Rawalpindi massacres</span> 1947 massacres of Sikhs and Hindus in Rawalpindi

The 1947 Rawalpindi massacres refer to widespread violence, massacres, and rapes of Hindus and Sikhs by Muslim mobs in the Rawalpindi Division of the Punjab Province of British India in March 1947. The violence preceded the partition of India and was instigated and perpetrated by the Muslim League National Guards—the militant wing of the Muslim League—as well as local cadres and politicians of the League, demobilised Muslim soldiers, local officials and policemen. It followed the fall of a coalition government of the Punjab Unionists, Indian National Congress and Akali Dal, achieved through a six-week campaign by the Muslim League. The riots left between 2,000 and 7,000 Sikhs and Hindus dead, and set off their mass exodus from Rawalpindi Division. 80,000 Sikhs and Hindus were estimated to have left the Division by the end of April. The incidents were the first instance of partition-related violence in Punjab to show clear manifestations of ethnic cleansing, and marked the beginning of systematic violence against women that accompanied the partition, seeing rampant sexual violence, rape, and forced conversions, with many women committing mass suicides along with their children, and many killed by their male relatives, for fear of abduction and rape. The events are sometimes referred to as the Rape of Rawalpindi.

During the Partition of India, violence against women occurred extensively. It is estimated that during the partition between 75,000 and 100,000 women were kidnapped and raped. The rape of women by men during this period is well documented, with women sometimes also being complicit in these attacks. In March 1947, systematic violence against women started in Rawalpindi where Sikh women were targeted by Muslim mobs. Violence was also perpetrated on an organized basis, with Pathans taking Hindu and Sikh women from refugee trains while one alleged that he witnessed armed Sikhs periodically dragging Muslim women.

The story of history of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan began on 14 August 1947 when the country came into being in the form of Dominion of Pakistan within the British Commonwealth as the result of Pakistan Movement and the partition of India. While the history of the Pakistani Nation according to the Pakistan government's official chronology started with the Islamic rule over Indian subcontinent by Muhammad bin Qasim which reached its zenith during Mughal Era. In 1947, Pakistan consisted of West Pakistan, East Pakistan and Hyderabad The President of All-India Muslim League and later the Pakistan Muslim League, Muhammad Ali Jinnah became Governor-General while the secretary general of the Muslim League, Liaquat Ali Khan became Prime Minister. The constitution of 1956 made Pakistan an Islamic democratic country.

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Opposition to the Partition of India was widespread in British India in the 20th century and it continues to remain a talking point in South Asian politics. Those who opposed it often adhered to the doctrine of composite nationalism in the Indian subcontinent. The Hindu, Christian, Anglo-Indian, Parsi and Sikh communities were largely opposed to the Partition of India, as were many Muslims.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Partition Horrors Remembrance Day</span> National memorial day on 14 August for the victims of the Partition of India

Partition Horrors Remembrance Day, also known as Vibhajan Vibhishika Smriti Diwas, is an annual national memorial day observed on 14 August in India, commemorating the victims and sufferings of people during the 1947 partition of India. It was first observed in 2021, after announcement by Prime Minister Narendra Modi.

References

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  3. As to official name being just "Pakistan" and not "Dominion of Pakistan": Indian Independence Act 1947, Section1.-(i) As from the fifteenth day of August, nineteen hundred and forty-seven, two independent Dominions shall be set up in India, to be known respectively as India and Pakistan."
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  7. Isaacs, Harold Robert (1975). Idols of the Tribe: Group Identity and Political Change. Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-44315-0. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2021. 2,000,000 killed in the Hindu-Muslim holocaust during the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan
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  9. Daiya, Kavita (2011). Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National Culture in Postcolonial India. Temple University Press. p. 75. ISBN   978-1-59213-744-2. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2021. The official estimate of the number of abducted women during Partition was placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh predominantly) women in Pakistan, and 50,000 Muslim women in India.
  10. Singh, Amritjit; Iyer, Nalini; Gairola, Rahul K. (2016). Revisiting India's Partition: New Essays on Memory, Culture, and Politics. Lexington Books. p. 14. ISBN   978-1-4985-3105-4. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2021. The horrific statistics that surround women refugees-between 75,000–100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh women who were abducted by men of the other communities, subjected to multiple rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced marriages and conversions-is matched by the treatment of the abducted women in the hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women abducted, 12,000 were recovered.
  11. Abraham, Taisha (2002). Women and the Politics of Violence. Har-Anand Publications. p. 131. ISBN   978-81-241-0847-5. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2021. In addition thousands of women on both sides of the newly formed borders (estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000 Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu and Sikh women) were abducted, raped, forced to convert, forced into marriage, forced back into what the two States defined as 'their proper homes,' torn apart from their families once during partition by those who abducted them, and again, after partition, by the State which tried to 'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them.
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Further reading