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In 2019–20, the economy of Kerala was the 8th-largest in India with ₹8.55 trillion (US$100billion) in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of ₹222,000 (US$2,700).[25] In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 65% to state's GSVA, while the primary sector contributed only 8%.[26] The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to the Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community. The production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew and spices are important. The state is situated between Arabian Sea to the west and Western Ghats mountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for 595 kilometres (370mi), and around 1.1million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry, which contributes 3% to the state's income. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by National Geographic Traveler,[27] Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with coconut-lined sandy beaches, backwaters, hill stations, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions.
Etymology
The word Kerala is first recorded as Keralaputo ('son of Chera [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperorAshoka (274–237BCE), one of his edicts pertaining to welfare.[28] At that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil: Chera and Kera are variants of the same word.[29] The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Old Tamil word for 'lake'.[30]Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamilcherive-alam 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope'[31] or chera alam 'land of the Cheras'.
One folk etymology derives Kerala from the Malayalam word kera 'coconut tree' and alam 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts',[32] which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees.[33]
Kerala was alternatively called Malabar in the foreign trade circles. Earlier, the term Malabar had also been used to denote Tulu Nadu and Kanyakumari which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala.[38][39] The people of Malabar were known as Malabars. Until the arrival of the East India Company, the term Malabar was used as a general name for Kerala, along with the term Kerala.[16] From the time of Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the Arab sailors used to call Kerala as Male. The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the Topography written by Cosmas Indicopleustes. This mentions a pepper emporium called Male, which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name Male is thought to come from the Dravidian word Mala ('hill').[40][41]Al-Biruni (973–1048CE) is the first known writer to call this country Malabar.[16] Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works.[42] The Arab writers had called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills.[43] According to William Logan, the word Malabar comes from a combination of the Dravidian word Mala (hill) and the Persian/Arabic word Barr (country/continent).[44]
According to the Sangam classic Purananuru, the Chera king Senkuttuvan conquered the lands between Kanyakumari and the Himalayas.[45] Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it.[45][46] According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology work Keralolpathi, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage Parashurama, the sixth avatar of Vishnu (hence, Kerala is also called Parashurama Kshetram 'The Land of Parashurama' in Hindu mythology).[47] Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to the legendary account, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari.[48] The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parashurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar theorised, that Senguttuvan may have been inspired by the Parashurama legendary account, which was brought by early Aryan settlers.[49]
Another much earlier Puranic character associated with Kerala is Mahabali, an Asura and a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the Devas, driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu, who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to netherworld to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the Onam festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala.[50] The Matsya Purana, among the oldest of the 18 Puranas,[51][52] uses the Malaya Mountains as the setting for the story of Matsya, the first incarnation of Vishnu, and Manu, the first man and the king of the region.[53][54]
Poovar is often identified with biblical Ophir region, known for its wealth.[55]
Portrait of the sword of Zamorins of Kozhikode, relating to the legend of Cheraman Perumal.
The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the Cheraman Perumals (literally the Chera kings) of Kerala.[56] The validity of the legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians.[57] The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal).[58][59] According to the legend, Rayar, the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the Ghats, invaded Kerala during the rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like Udaya Varman Kolathiri, Manichchan, and Vikkiran of Eranad). The Cheraman Perumal was assured by the Eradis (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the Rayar.[60] The battle lasted for three days and the Rayar eventually evacuated his fort (and it was seized by the Perumal's troops).[60] Then the last Cheraman Perumal divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him.[56][58][59] The Eradis of Nediyiruppu, who later came to be known as the Zamorins of Kozhikode, who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the Cheraman Perumal's sword (with the permission to "die, and kill, and seize").[59][60]
A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near Changanassery, thus supporting the hypothesis.[61] Pre-historical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area of the Idukki district, which lie on the eastern highland made by Western Ghats. They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni (hermit or sage) and ara (dolmen).[62] Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves, in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic era around 6000BCE.[63][64] Archaeological studies have identified Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala.[65] The studies point to the development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic Age, through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages.[66] Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation;[67] historians suggest a possible relationship with Indus Valley civilisation during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.[68]
Ancient period
Ancient Silk Road map showing the then trade routes. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).Names, routes and locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE)Ezhimala, the early historic headquarters of Mushika dynasty, which was succeeded by the kingdom of Kannur later.
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".[69][70]:79 Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs, Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period.[71]Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices.[71] The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries.[71] They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East.[71] The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.[71]
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.[80] The Israeli (Jewish) connection with Kerala started in 573BCE.[81][82][83] Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Israelis [Hebrew Jews] at Eden.[84] In the 4th century, the Knanaya or Southist Christians also migrated from Persia and lived alongside the early Syriac Christian community known as the Saint Thomas Christians who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century.[85][86]
A second Chera Kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram (present-day Kodungallur), was established by Kulasekhara Varman,[88] which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region from Nagercoil to Thiruvalla was ruled by Ay kings, who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire.[89][90] Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed a developing period of art, literature, trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism.[91] A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils, became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century.[92] The origin of Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE.[93][94][95] For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis, with each province comprising a number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis.[91]Mamankam festival, which was the largest native festival, was held at Tirunavaya near Kuttippuram, on the bank of river Bharathappuzha.[43][16]Athavanad, the headquarters of Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the NambudiriBrahmins of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.[43][16]
Sulaiman al-Tajir, a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam.[96] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 CE), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 CE), Abulfeda (1273–1331 CE), and Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.[97] Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia.[98][99] The known earliest mention about Muslims of Kerala is in the Quilon Syrian copper plates.[87]
A panorama of port Kozhikode, shows several types of ships, shipbuilding, net fishing, dinghy traffic and a rugged, sparsely populated interior (Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572)
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two major religions, Buddhism and Jainism, to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of Jainism.[100] The social system became fractured with divisions on caste lines.[101] Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas.[89] However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India.
The rise of Kozhikode
After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into 30 small warring principalities; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of Zamorin of Kozhikode in the north, Kollam in the far-south, Kochi in the south, and Kannur in the far north. The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi, and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.[102] The Zamorin of Calicut was originally the ruler of Eranad, which was a minor principality located in the northern parts of present-day Malappuram district.[16][103] The Zamorin allied with Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. Kozhikode became the most powerful kingdom in the Malayalam speaking region during the Middle Ages.[104][103]
Uru, a type of ship that was historically used for maritime trade, built at Beypore, Kozhikode
At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam (Quilon) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy) in the north.[104][103]Ibn Battuta (1342–1347), who visited the city of Kozhikode six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city.[105]Ma Huan (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho (Zheng He)[106] states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. Abdur Razzak (1442–43), Niccolò de' Conti (1445), Afanasy Nikitin (1468–74), Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), and Duarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of the major trading centres in the Indian subcontinent where traders from different parts of the world could be seen.[107][108]
Vijayanagara Conquests
The king Deva Raya II (1424–1446) of the Vijayanagara Empire conquered the entirety of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century.[103] He defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of Kollam around 1443.[103]Fernão Nunes says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire.[103] Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion.[103] As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala.[103] He built a fort at Ponnani in 1498.[103]
The maritime spice trade monopoly in the Arabian Sea stayed with the Arabs during the High and Late Middle Ages. However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European Age of Discovery. After Vasco Da Gama's arrival in Kappad, Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular.[a][110][111][112] Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Malabar in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon.[113][114] They established a trading centre at Tangasseri in Quilon during 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there.[115]
The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur, who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut, sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode.[16] As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu) became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504).[43] However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut.[116] The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi. When Francisco de Almeida was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established at Fort Kochi (Fort Emmanuel) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast.[117] However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in South Malabar; especially from naval attacks under the leadership of Kozhikode admirals known as Kunjali Marakkars, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organising the first naval defence of the Indian coast.[118]Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, who is considered as the father of modern Malayalam literature, was born at Tirur (Vettathunadu) during Portuguese period.[43][16]
The Kingdoms of Travancore and Cochin, and British influences
The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of the Travancore Royal Family, and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741.[124] An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region.[125][126][127] In the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma annexed all the kingdoms up to Cochin through military conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to pre-eminence in Kerala.[128] The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and the northern and north-central parts of Kerala (Malabar District), along with Fort Kochi, Tangasseri, and Anchuthengu in southern Kerala, came under direct British rule until India became independent.[129][130] Travancore became the dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755.[131]
By the end of the 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under suzerainty.[139] Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, who had popular support in Thalassery-Wayanad region.[16][140][141][142][143]
The state is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats. Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',[151] Kerala experiences humid tropical rainforest climate with some cyclones. The state has a coast of 590km (370mi)[152] and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 kilometres (7 and 75mi).[153] Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.[70]:110Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.[154][155] A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport.[156] The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' rain shadow.[70]:110 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers,[157] and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region.[158][159] The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad; hence also known Palghat, where the Palakkad Gap breaks.[160] The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 metres (4,900 feet)above sea level,[161] while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 metres (8,200 feet).[162]Anamudi in the Idukki district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695m (8,842ft).[163] The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites.[164] The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains.[164] The Athirappilly Falls, which is situated on the background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as The Niagara of India.[165] It is located in the Chalakudy River and is the largest waterfall in the state.[165]Wayanad is the sole Plateau in Kerala.[166] The eastern regions in the districts of Wayanad, Malappuram (Chaliyar valley at Nilambur), and Palakkad (Attappadi Valley), which together form parts of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and a continuation of the Mysore Plateau, are known for natural Gold fields, along with the adjoining districts of Karnataka.[167] Minerals including Ilmenite, Monazite, Thorium, and Titanium, are found in the coastal belt of Kerala.[168] Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium-containing monazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70mGy/yr.[169]
Topography of Kerala
Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region,[70]:33 and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries,[170] and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters.[171]Kuttanad, also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala, has the lowest altitude in India, and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level.[172][173] The country's longest lake Vembanad, dominates the backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is about 200km2 (77sqmi) in area.[174] Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala.[175] Kerala's 44 rivers include the Periyar; 244 kilometres (152mi), Bharathapuzha; 209 kilometres (130mi), Pamba; 176 kilometres (109mi), Chaliyar; 169 kilometres (105mi), Kadalundipuzha; 130 kilometres (81mi), Chalakudipuzha; 130 kilometres (81mi), Valapattanam; 129 kilometres (80mi) and the Achankovil River; 128 kilometres (80mi). The average length of the rivers is 64 kilometres (40mi). Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain.[176] As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in delta, they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.[177] The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami,[178] and in 2018 received the worst flooding in nearly a century.[179] In 2024, Kerala experienced its worst landslides in history.[180]
Climate
With around 120–140 rainy days per year,[181]:80 Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon.[182] Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon.[182] The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula, because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch".[183] The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats,[184] making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon.[185][186] The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India.[187][188] In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only.[189] Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923mm (115in) annually.[190] Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250mm (49in); the mountains of the eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000mm (197in) of orographic precipitation: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.[191]:26,46,52 The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8°C to 36.7°C.[192] Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5°C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5°C in the eastern highlands.[191]:65
Most of the biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats. Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century.[193]As of 2004[update], over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 flowering plant species; 1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala, 900 are medicinal, and 159 are threatened.[194]:11 Its 9,400km2 of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470km2), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100km2 and 100km2, respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100km2). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.[194]:12 Four of the world's Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta, Ashtamudi Lake, Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands, and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala,[195] as well as 1455.4km2 of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and 1828km2 of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.[196] Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,[197]:6–7 much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from clearfelling.[198] Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats.[199][200] The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in Nilambur.[201]
The Government of Kerala is a democratically elected body in India with the governor as its constitutional head and is appointed by the president of India for a five-year term.[219] The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the chief minister by the governor, and the council of ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister.[219] The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the chief minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). The Secretariat headed by the Chief Secretary assists the council of ministers. The Chief Secretary is also the administrative head of the government. Each government department is headed by a minister, who is assisted by an Additional Chief Secretary or a Principal Secretary, who is usually an officer of Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the Additional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary serve as the administrative head of the department they are assigned to. Each department also has officers of the rank of Secretary, Special Secretary, Joint Secretary etc. assisting the Minister and the Additional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary
Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called District collector for executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.[220] The judiciary consists of the Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts.[221] The High Court, located in Kochi,[222] has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional pro tempore justices as of 2021[update].[223] The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep.[224][225]
In Kerala, local government bodies such as Panchayats, Municipalities, and Corporations have existed since 1959. However, a significant decentralization initiative began in 1993, aligning with constitutional amendments by the central government.[226] The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act were enacted in 1994, establishing a 3-tier system for local governance.[227] This system includes Gram Panchayat, Block Panchayat, and District Panchayat.[228] The Acts define clear powers for these institutions.[226] For urban areas, the Kerala Municipality Act follows a single-tier system, equivalent to Gram Panchayat.These bodies receive substantial administrative, legal, and financial powers to ensure effective decentralization.[229] Currently, the state government allocates around 40% of the state plan outlay to local governments.[230] Kerala was declared the first digital state of India in 2016 and, according to the India Corruption Survey 2019 by Transparency International, is considered the least corrupt state in India.[231][232] The Public Affairs Index-2020 designated Kerala as the best-governed state in India.[233]
The city of Kochi is the largest financial, commercial, and industrial hub in Kerala, with the highest GDP as well as the highest GDP per capita in the state.[235][236]
After independence, the state was managed as a social democraticwelfare economy.[237] The "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala model of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector.[191]:48[238]:1 In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 63% of the state's GSVA, compared to 28% by secondary sector, and 8% by primary sector.[26] In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one.[26]
Kerala's economy depends significantly on emigrants working in foreign countries, mainly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and the remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.[241] The state witnessed significant emigration during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71billion remittances to the country.[242] In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over ₹1 lakh crore (US$12billion), amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about ₹7 lakh crore (US$84billion).[243]Malappuram district has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state.[26] A study commissioned by the Kerala State Planning Board, suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.[244]
As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.[245] On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.[246]Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%;[247] chronic issues are underemployment, low employability of youth, and a low female labour participation rate of only 13.5%,[248]:5,13 as was the practice of Nokku kooli, "wages for looking on".[249] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.[250]
Coconuts are an important regional cash crop.
The state's budget of 2020–2021 was ₹1.15 lakh crore (US$14billion).[251] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to ₹674 billion (US$8.1billion) in 2020–21; up from ₹557 billion (US$6.7billion) in 2019–20. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached ₹146 billion (US$1.7billion) in 2020–2021.[251] However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.[252] A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over ₹20 billion (US$240million).[253] Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.[254]
Despite many achievements, Kerala faces many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment.[261]
Jackfruits are the state fruit, and are a cultural icon of Kerala. The "Jack" in Jackfruit itself is from the Malayalam word "chakka", through Portuguese "jaca".A paddy field at Palakkad, also known as The Granary of KeralaBlack pepper is an important cash crop in Kerala, which leads the country in production.
The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour.[268] Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.[269][270] Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings.[271] Only 27.3% of the families in Kerala depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, which is also the least curresponding rate in India.[272]
Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper[273] and accounts for 85% of the natural rubber in the country.[274][275]Coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices—including cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg are the main agricultural products.[70]:74[276][277][278][279][280] Around 80% of India's export quality cashew kernels are prepared in Kollam.[281] The key cash crop is coconut and Kerala ranks first in the area of coconut cultivation in India.[282] Around 90% of the total Cardamom produced in India is from Kerala.[26] India is the second-largest producer of Cardamom in world.[26] About 20% of the total Coffee produced in India are from Kerala.[240] The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields.[283] Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector.[284]
With 590 kilometres (370 miles) of coastal belt,[285] 400,000 hectares of inland water resources[286] and approximately 220,000 active fishermen,[287] Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.[288] According to 2003–04 reports, about 11 lakh(1.1million) people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 6,08,000tons in 2003–04.[289] This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala.[290] During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally called chakara.[291][292] The waters provide a large variety of fish: pelagic species; 59%, demersal species; 23%, crustaceans, molluscs and others for 18%.[290] Around 1050,000(1.050million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590-kilometre (370-mile) coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.
Kerala has 331,904 kilometres (206,236mi) of roads, which accounts for 5.6% of India's total.[26][293] This translates to about 9.94 kilometres (6.18mi) of road per thousand people, compared to an average of 4.87 kilometres (3.03mi) in the country.[26][293] Roads in Kerala include 1,812 kilometres (1,126mi) of national highway; 1.6% of the nation's total, 4,342 kilometres (2,698mi) of state highway; 2.5% of the nation's total, 27,470 kilometres (17,070mi) of district roads; 4.7% of the nation's total, 33,201 kilometres (20,630mi) of urban (municipal) roads; 6.3% of the nation's total, and 158,775 kilometres (98,658mi) of rural roads; 3.8% of the nation's total.[294]Kottayam has the maximum length of roads among the districts of Kerala, while Wayanad accounts for minimum.[295] Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through the NH 66 (previously NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways.[296] New projects for hill and coastal highways were recently announced under KIIFB.[297] National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road (1,622 kilometres (1,008mi)) connects Kanyakumari to Mumbai; it enters Kerala via Talapady in Kasargod and passes through Kannur, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Guruvayur, Kochi, Alappuzha, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram before entering Tamil Nadu.[296]Palakkad district is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap in the Western Ghats, through which the northern (Malabar) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. The state's largest checkpoint, Walayar, is on NH 544, in the border town between Kerala and Tamil Nadu, through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala.[298]
The Department of Public Works is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways system and major district roads.[299] The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala. It also oversees a few major district roads.[300][301] Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.[302] National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45 metres (148 feet) wide. In other states, national highways are grade separated, 60 metres (200 feet) wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8-lane access-controlled expressways.[303][304] The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give higher priority to other states in highway development since political commitment to better highways in Kerala has been lacking.[305]As of 2013[update], Kerala had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's national highways.[306]
Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) is a state-owned road transport corporation. It is one of the country's oldest state-run public bus transport services. Its origins can be traced back to Travancore State Road Transport Department, when the Travancore government headed by Sri. Chithra Thirunnal decided to set up a public road transportation system in 1937.
The corporation is divided into three zones (North, Central and South), with the headquarters in Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala's capital city). Daily scheduled service has increased from 1,200,000 kilometres (750,000mi) to 1,422,546 kilometres (883,929mi),[307] using 6,241 buses on 6,389 routes. At present the corporation has 5373 buses running on 4795 schedules.[308][309]
Kochi Metro is the metro rail system in the city of Kochi. It is the only metro rail system in Kerala. Construction began in 2012, with the first phase being set up at an estimated cost of ₹51.81 billion (US$620million).[319][320] The Kochi Metro uses 65-metre long Metropolis train sets built and designed by Alstom.[321][322][323] It is the first metro system in India to use a communication-based train control (CBTC) system for signalling and telecommunication.[324] In October 2017, Kochi Metro was named the "Best Urban Mobility Project" in India by the Urban Development Ministry, as part of the Urban Mobility India (UMI) International Conference hosted by the ministry every year.[325]
Kollam Airport, established under the Madras Presidency, but since closed, was the first airport in Kerala.[326]Kannur had an airstrip used for commercial aviation as early as 1935 when Tata airlines operated weekly flights between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram – stopping at Goa and Kannur.[327] Trivandrum International Airport, managed by the Airport Authority of India, is among the oldest existing airports in South India. Calicut International Airport, which was opened in 1988, is the second-oldest existing airport in Kerala and the oldest in the Malabar region.[328] Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and the seventh busiest in the country. It is also the first airport in the world to be fully powered by solar energy[329] and has won the coveted Champion of the Earth award, the highest environmental honour instituted by the United Nations.[330] Cochin International Airport is also the first Indian airport to be incorporated as a public limited company; it was funded by nearly 10,000 non-resident Indians from 30 countries.[331] Other than civilian airports, Kochi has a naval airport named INS Garuda. Thiruvananthapuram airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of the Indian Air Force. These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala.
Kochi Water Metro (KWM) is an integrated ferry transport system serving the Greater Kochi region in Kerala, India. It is the first water metro system in India and the first integrated water transport system of this size in Asia, which connects Kochi's 10 island communities with the mainland through a fleet of 78 battery-operated electric hybrid boats plying along 38 terminals and 16 routes spanning 76 kilometres.[337] It is integrated with the Kochi Metro and serves as a feeder service to the suburbs along the rivers where transport accessibility is limited.[338]
Kerala is home to 2.8% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km2, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the national average of 370 persons per km2.[340] As of 2011[update], Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala.[341] In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-India average of 17.6%.[340] Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6million people to reach 29.1million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3million by 2011.[340] Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km2, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km2, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[342] Kerala is the second-most urbanised major state in the country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India.[23] Around 31.8million Keralites are predominantly Malayali.[340] The state's 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis, 1.1% of the population, are concentrated in the east.[343]:10–12
There is a tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household.[344] As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families.[345] Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate,[346] which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala's Gender Development Index was 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable sex ratio, contributed to it.[347]
Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 (females to males) is higher than that of the rest of India; it is the only state where women outnumber men.[238]:2 While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts etc., these tools have still not translated into full, equal rights for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influences social mobility.[348][349][350]
Kerala has been at the forefront of LGBT issues in India.[351] Kerala is one of the first states in India to form a welfare policy for the transgender community. In 2016, the Kerala government introduced free sex reassignment surgery through government hospitals.[352][353][354]Queerala is one of the major LGBT organisations in Kerala. It campaigns for increased awareness of LGBT people and sensitisation concerning healthcare services, workplace policies and educational curriculum.[355] Since 2010, Kerala Queer Pride has been held annually across various cities in Kerala.[356]
In June 2019, the Kerala government passed a new order that members of the transgender community should not be referred to as the "third gender" or "other gender" in government communications. Instead, the term "transgender" should be used. Previously, the gender preferences provided in government forms and documents included male, female, and other/third gender.[357][358]
In the 2021 Mathrubhumi Youth Manifesto Survey conducted on people aged between 15 and 35, majority (74.3%) of the respondents supported legislation for same-sex marriage while 25.7% opposed it.[359]
Under a democratic communist local government, Kerala has achieved a record of social development much more advanced than the Indian average.[361]As of 2015[update], Kerala has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.770, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country.[9] It was 0.790 in 2007–08[362] and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries.[362] Comparatively higher spending by the government on primary level education, health care and the elimination of poverty from the 19th century onwards has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI;[363][364] the report was prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research.[365][366] However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state.[363] Kerala is also widely regarded as the cleanest and healthiest state in India.[367]
According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest literacy rate (94%) among Indian states. In 2018, the literacy rate was calculated to be 96%. In the Kottayam district, the literacy rate was 97%.[368][11][369] The life expectancy in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India as of 2011[update].[370] Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.[371] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.[250] The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.1% and 5.0%, respectively.[372] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[373][374] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[191][375]:48
Kerala has undergone a "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway.[238]:1 In 2005, 11.2% of people were over the age of 60.[375] In 2023, the BBC reported on the problems and benefits which have arisen from migration away from Kerala, focussing on the village of Kumbanad.[376]
In 2004, the birthrate was low at 18 per 1,000.[377] According to the 2011 census, Kerala had a total fertility rate (TFR) of 1.6. All district except Malappuram district had fertility rate below 2. Fertility rate is highest in Malappuram district (2.2) and lowest in Pathanamthitta district (1.3).[378] In 2001, Muslims had the TFR of 2.6 as against 1.5 for Hindus and 1.7 for Christians.[379] The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by CMS Indian Corruption Study (CMS-ICS)[380] Transparency International (2005)[381] and India Today (1997).[382] Kerala has the lowest homicide rate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011.[383] In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as higher suicide rate, lower share of earned income, child marriage,[384] complaints of sexual harassment and limited freedom are reported.[347] The child marriage is lower in Kerala. The Malappuram district has the highest number of child marriage and the number of such cases are increasing in Malappuram. The child marriages are particularly higher among the Muslim community.[385][386] In 2019, Kerala recorded the highest child sex abuse complaints in India.[387]
In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%.[388] Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India, <0.1%,[389] and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless.[390] The state was also among the lowest in the India State Hunger Index next only to Punjab. In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives.[391]
Kerala is a pioneer in implementing the universal health care program.[392] The sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12[191][377]:49 to 14[393]:5 deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015–16, it has dropped to 6.[394] According to a study commissioned by Lien Foundation, a Singapore-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses.[395] However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively as of 2005[update].[393]:5 Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is higher than that of many first world nations.[377] Outbreaks of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3million water wells is an issue worsened by the lack of sewers.[396]:5–7 As of 2017, the state has the highest number of diabetes patients and also the highest prevalence rate of the disease in India.[397]
The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas.[398][399] Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital delivered and the state also has the lowest infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% births in medical facilities.[400]Ayurveda,[401]:13siddha, and endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa and vishavaidyam, are practised. Some occupational communities such as Kaniyar were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.[402] These propagate via gurukula discipleship,[401]:5–6 and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments.[401]:15 The Arya Vaidya Sala established by Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier at Kottakkal (about 10km from Malappuram) in 1902, is the largest Ayurvedic medicinal network and health centre in the state.[403][404][405] It is also one of the largest Ayurvedic medicinal brands in the world.[403][404][405]
In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham.[406] People in Kerala experience elevated incidence of cancers, liver and kidney diseases.[407] In April 2016, the Economic Times reported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations has stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients.[408] As of 2017–18, there are 6,691 modern medicine institutions under the department of health services, of which the total bed strength is 37,843; 15,780 in rural areas and 22,063 in urban.[409]
Percentage of the most popular religion in each Taluk of Kerala
Kerala is very religiously diverse with Hindus, Muslims and Christians having a significant population throughout the state, Kerala is often regarded as one of the most diverse states in all of India.[415][416]Hinduism is the most widely professed faith in Kerala, with significant Muslim and Christian minorities. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.[417] According to 2011 Census of India figures, 54.7% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.6% are Muslims, 18.4% are Christians, and the remaining 0.3% follow another religion or have no religious affiliation.[418]Hindus represent the biggest religious group in all districts except Malappuram, where they are outnumbered by Muslims.[419] Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India.[420] As of 2016, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.9%, 42.6%, 15.4% and 0.2% of the total child births in the state, respectively.[421]
Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger Indian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from the Middle East. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE.[422][423] Notable has been the occurrence of Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin, the mythical Hindu king who moved to Arabia to meet Muhammad and converted to Islam.[424][425][426] Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.[427][428] According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624CE at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad (c.570–632).[429][430][98][431]
The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including series expansion for trigonometric functions.[454][455] In the early decades of the 19th century, the modern educational transformation of Kerala was triggered by the efforts of the Church Mission Society missionaries to promote mass education.[456][457][458][459][460] Following the recommendations of the Wood's despatch of 1854, the princely states of Travancore and Cochin launched mass education drives mainly based on castes and communities, and introduced a system of grant-in-aid to attract more private initiatives.[461] The efforts by leaders such as Vaikunda Swami, Narayana Guru, Ayyankali, and Kuriakose Elias Chavara in aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state—with the help of community-based organisations like Nair Service Society, SNDP, Muslim Educational Society, Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and congregations of Christian churches—led to the further development of mass education in Kerala.[461]
In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as completely literate, although the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%.[462] In 2006–2007, the state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) of the 21 major states in India.[463]As of 2007[update], enrolment in elementary education was almost 100%; and, unlike other states in India, educational opportunity was almost equally distributed among sexes, social groups, and regions.[464] According to the 2011 census, Kerala has a 93.9% literacy, compared to the national literacy rate of 74.0%.[369] In January 2016, Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through its Athulyam literacy programme.[465]
The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part of Indian culture.[34] It is a synthesis of Aryan, Dravidian, Arab, and European cultures,[477] developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India and abroad.[478] It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the Malayali people.[479] It was elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures.[480] However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions.[34] Over 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year.[481] The Malayalam calendar, a solar sidereal calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala,[482] finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.[483]Malayalam, one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala's official language.[484] Over a dozen other scheduled and unscheduled languages are also spoken.[410] Kerala has the greatest consumption of alcohol in India.[485]
Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year.[486] A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity.[487] Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being the Thrissur Pooram.[488] "Elephants, firework displays and huge crowds" are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram.[489] Other known festivals are Makaravilakku,[490]Chinakkathoor Pooram, Attukal Pongala and Nenmara Vallangi Vela[491] Other than these, festivals locally known as utsavams are conducted by many temples mostly on annual basis. Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to it.[492] Processions often include traditional music such as Panchari melam or Panchavadyam.[493]Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha are celebrated by the Muslim community of the state while the festivals like Christmas and Easter are observed by the Christians.[16] Onam is a harvest festival celebrated by the people of Kerala and is reminiscent of the state's agrarian past.[494][495] It is a local festival of Kerala[496] consisting of a four-day public holidays; from Onam Eve (Uthradam) to the fourth Onam Day.[497] Onam falls in the Malayalam month of Chingam (August–September)[498] and marks the commemoration of the homecoming of King Mahabali.[499] The total duration of Onam is 10 days and it is celebrated all across Kerala. It is one of the festivals celebrated with cultural elements such as Vallam Kali,[500]Pulikali,[501] Pookkalam,[502] Thumbi Thullal[503] and Onavillu.[504]
Kerala is home to a number of performance arts. These include five classical dance forms: Kathakali, Mohiniyattam, Koodiyattom, Thullal and Krishnanattam, which originated and developed in the temple theatres during the classical period under the patronage of royal houses.[505]Kerala natanam, Thirayattam,[506]Kaliyattam, Theyyam, Koothu and Padayani are other dance forms associated with the temple culture of the region.[507] Some traditional dance forms such as Oppana and Duffmuttu were popular among the Muslims of the state,[508] while Margamkali and Parichamuttukali are popular among the Syrian Christians and Chavittu nadakom is popular among the Latin Christians.[509][510] The development of classical music in Kerala is attributed to the contributions it received from the traditional performance arts associated with the temple culture of Kerala.[511] The development of the indigenous classical music form, Sopana Sangeetham, illustrates the rich contribution that temple culture has made to the arts of Kerala.[511]Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.[480] Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances.[512]Melam; including the paandi and panchari variants, is a more percussive style of music:[513] it is performed at Kshetram-centered festivals using the chenda. Panchavadyam is a form of percussion ensemble, in which artists use five types of percussion instrument.[513] Kerala's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter.[511] Most of the castes and communities in Kerala have rich collections of folk songs and ballads associated with a variety of themes; Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern Ballads), Thekkan pattukal (Southern Ballads), Vanchi pattukal (Boat Songs), Mappila Pattukal (Muslim songs) and Pallipattukal (Church songs) are a few of them.[514]
Kerala cuisine includes a wide variety of vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry, and meat. Culinary spices have been cultivated in Kerala for millennia and they are characteristic of its cuisine.[556] Rice is a dominant staple that is eaten at all times of day.[557] A majority of the breakfast foods in Kerala are made out of rice, in one form or the other (idli, dosa, puttu, pathiri, appam, or idiyappam), tapioca preparations, or pulse-based vada.[558] These may be accompanied by chutney, kadala, payasam, payarpappadam, appam, chicken curry, beef fry, egg masala and fish curry.[276]Porotta and Biryani are also often found in restaurants in Kerala. Thalassery biryani is popular as an ethnic brand. Lunch dishes include rice and curry along with rasam, pulisherry and sambar.[559]Sadhya is a vegetarian meal, which is served on a banana leaf and followed with a cup of payasam.[560] Popular snacks include banana chips, yam crisps, tapioca chips, Achappam, Unni appam and kuzhalappam.[561][562][563] Seafood specialties include karimeen, prawns, shrimp and other crustacean dishes.[564]Thalassery Cuisine is varied and is a blend of many influences.
Elephants
Elephants have been an integral part of the culture of the state. Almost all of the local festivals in Kerala include at least one richly caparisoned elephant. Kerala is home to the largest domesticated population of elephants in India—about 700 Indian elephants, owned by temples as well as individuals.[565] These elephants are mainly employed for the processions and displays associated with festivals celebrated all around the state. More than 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state annually and some animal lovers have sometimes raised concerns regarding the overwork of domesticated elephants during them.[481] In Malayalam literature, elephants are referred to as the "sons of the sahya".[566] The elephant is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the Government of Kerala.[567]
By the 21st century, almost all of the native sports and games from Kerala have either disappeared or become just an art form performed during local festivals; including Poorakkali, Padayani, Thalappandukali, Onathallu, Parichamuttukali, Velakali, and Kilithattukali.[581] However, Kalaripayattu, regarded as "the mother of all martial arts in the world", is an exception and is practised as the indigenous martial sport.[582] Another traditional sport of Kerala is the boat race, especially the race of Snake boats.[581]
Kerala's culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demographics, have made the state one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. In 2012, National Geographic's Traveller magazine named Kerala as one of the "ten paradises of the world"[602][603] and "50 must see destinations of a lifetime".[604]Travel and Leisure also described Kerala as "One of the 100 great trips for the 21st century".[602][605] In 2012, it overtook the Taj Mahal to be the number one travel destination in Google's search trends for India.[606]CNN Travel listed Kerala among its '19 best places to visit in 2019'.[607] Kerala was named by TIME magazine in 2022 among the 50 extraordinary destinations to explore in its list of the World's Greatest Places.[608]
Kerala's beaches, backwaters, lakes, mountain ranges, waterfalls, ancient ports, palaces, religious institutions[609] and wildlife sanctuaries are major attractions for both domestic and international tourists.[610] The city of Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala.[611][612] Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination compared to other states in the country.[613] In 1986 the government of Kerala declared tourism an important industry and it was the first state in India to do so.[614] Marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees the tourism prospects of the state, resulted in the growth of the tourism industry.[615] Many advertisements branded Kerala with the tagline Kerala, God's Own Country.[615] Kerala tourism is a global brand and regarded as one of the destinations with highest recall.[615] In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5million tourists, an increase of 23.7% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing popular destinations in the world.[616] In 2011, tourist inflow to Kerala crossed the 10-million mark.[617]
Ayurvedic tourism has become very popular since the 1990s, and private agencies have played a notable role in tandem with the initiatives of the Tourism Department.[613] Kerala is known for its ecotourism initiatives which include mountaineering, trekking and bird-watching programmes in the Western Ghats as the major activities.[618] The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy, growing at the rate of 13.3%.[619] The revenue from tourism increased five-fold between 2001 and 2011 and crossed the ₹ 190billion mark in 2011. According to the Economic Times[620] Kerala netted a record revenue of INR 365280.1million from the tourism sector in 2018, clocking an increase of Rs 28743.3million from the previous year. Over 16.7million tourists visited Kerala in 2018 as against 15.76million the previous year, recording an increase of 5.9%. The industry provides employment to approximately 1.2million people.[617]
Thiruvananthapuram,( TIRR-oo-və-NUN-təp-OOR-əm; Malayalam:[t̪iɾuʋɐnɐn̪d̪ɐpuɾɐm] ) formerly known as Trivandrum,( trih-VAN-drəmEnglish:/t̪iɾʋænɖɾʊm/ ) is the capital city of the Indian state of Kerala. It is the largest and most populous city in Kerala and a major port city. Located in Thiruvananthapuram city, hosts India’s first deep-water transshipment port, the Vizhinjam International Seaport Thiruvananthapuram. The encompassing urban agglomeration population is around 1.68 million. Located on the west coast of India near the extreme south of the mainland, Thiruvananthapuram is a major information technology hub in Kerala and contributes 55% of the state's software exports as of 2016. Referred to by Mahatma Gandhi as the "Evergreen city of India", the city is characterised by its undulating terrain of low coastal hills.
Kozhikode, formerly known as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. Known as the City of Spices, Kozhikode is listed among the UNESCO's Cities of Literature.
Kasaragod is a municipal town and administrative headquarters of Kasaragod district in the state of Kerala, India. Established in 1966, Kasaragod was the first municipal town in the district. It is the northernmost district of Kerala and is also known as Sapta Bhasha Sangama Bhumi.
Palakkad is one of the 14 districts in the Indian state of Kerala. It was carved out of the southeastern region of the former Malabar District on 1 January 1957. It is located at the central region of Kerala and is the second largest district in the state after Idukki. The city of Palakkad is the district headquarters. Palakkad is bordered on the northwest by the Malappuram district, on the southwest by the Thrissur district, on the northeast by Nilgiris district, and on the east by Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu. The district is nicknamed "The granary of Kerala". Palakkad is the gateway to Kerala due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap, in the Western Ghats. The 2,383 m high Anginda peak, which is situated in the border of Palakkad district, Nilgiris district, and Malappuram district, in Silent Valley National Park, is the highest point of elevation in Palakkad district. Palakkad city is about 347 kilometres (216 mi) northeast of the state capital, Thiruvananthapuram.
The Malayali people are a Dravidian ethnolinguistic group originating from the present-day state of Kerala & Union Territory of Lakshadweep in India, occupying its southwestern Malabar coast. They form the majority of the population in Kerala and Lakshadweep. They are predominantly native speakers of the Malayalam language, one of the eleven classical languages of India. The state of Kerala was created in 1956 through the States Reorganisation Act. Prior to that, since the 1800s existed the Kingdom of Travancore, the Kingdom of Cochin, Malabar District, and South Canara of the British India. The Malabar District was annexed by the British through the Third Mysore War (1790–92) from Tipu Sultan. Before that, the Malabar District was under various kingdoms including the Zamorins of Calicut, Kingdom of Tanur, Arakkal kingdom, Kolathunadu, Valluvanad, and Palakkad Rajas.
Kannur, formerly known in English as Cannanore, is a city and a municipal corporation in the state of Kerala, India. It is the administrative headquarters of the Kannur district and situated 274 kilometres (170 mi) north of the major port city and commercial hub Kochi and 137 kilometres (85 mi) south of the major port city and a commercial hub, Mangalore. During the period of British colonial rule in India, when Kannur was a part of the Malabar District, the city was known as Cannanore. Kannur is the fifth largest urban agglomeration in Kerala. As of 2011 census, Kannur Municipal Corporation, the local body which administers mainland area of city, had a population of 232,486.
Thiruvananthapuram District is the southernmost district in the Indian state of Kerala. The district was created in 1949, with its headquarters in the city of Thiruvananthapuram, which is also Kerala's administrative centre. The present district was created in 1956 by separating the four southernmost Taluks of the erstwhile district to form Kanyakumari district. The city of Thiruvananthapuram is also known as the Information technology capital of the State, since it is home to the first and largest IT park in India, Technopark, established in 1990. The district is home to more than 9% of total population of the state.
Malabar District, also known as British Malabar or simply Malabar was an administrative district on the southwestern Malabar Coast of Bombay Presidency (1792–1800), Madras Presidency (1800–1937), Madras Province (1937–1950) and finally, Madras State (1950–1956) in India. It was the most populous and the third-largest district in the erstwhile Madras State. The historic town of Kozhikode was the administrative headquarters of this district.
The term Kerala was first epigraphically recorded as Cheras (Keralaputra) in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka of Magadha. It was mentioned as one of four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being the Cholas, Pandyas and Satyaputras. The Cheras transformed Kerala into an international trade centre by establishing trade relations across the Arabian Sea with all major Mediterranean and Red Sea ports as well those of Eastern Africa and the Far East. The dominion of Cheras was located in one of the key routes of the ancient Indian Ocean trade. The early Cheras collapsed after repeated attacks from the neighboring Cholas and Rashtrakutas.
The culture of Kerala has developed over the past millennia, influences from other parts of India and abroad. It is defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by the Malayali people. Modern Kerala society took shape owing to migrations from different parts of India and abroad throughout Classical Antiquity.
Kerala is a state in south-western India. Most of Kerala's 34.8 million people are ethnically Malayalis. People of Kerala trace their origins to Dravidians and Aryans. Kerala people have mixed ancestry. Additional ancestries derive from millennia of trade links across the Arabian Sea, whereby people of Arab, Jewish, Syrian, Portuguese, English and other ethnicities settled in Kerala. Many of these immigrants intermarried with native Malayalam speakers resulting in formation of many Muslim and Christian groups in Kerala. Some Muslims and Christians thus take lineage from Middle Eastern and European settlers who mixed with native population.
Palakkad, also known as Palghat, historically known as Palakkattussery, is a city and municipality in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the administrative headquarters of Palakkad District. Palakkad is the most densely populated municipality and the fourth-most densely populated city in the state. It was established before Indian independence under British rule and known by the name Palghat. Palakkad is famous for the ancient Palakkad Fort, which is in the heart of the city and was captured and rebuilt by Hyder Ali in 1766 which later fell into the hands of Zamorin in 1784. The city is about 347 kilometres (216 mi) northeast of the state capital, Thiruvananthapuram.
Religion in Kerala is diverse. According to 2011 census of India figures, 54.73% of Kerala's population are Hindus, 26.56% are Muslims, 18.38% are Christians, and the remaining 0.33% follow other religions or have no religion. As of 2020, Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others account for 41.5%, 43.9%, 13.9% and 0.7% of the total child births in the state, respectively.
The Malabar Coast is the southwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. It generally refers to the western coastline of India stretching from Konkan to Kanyakumari. Geographically, it comprises one of the wettest regions of the subcontinent, which includes the Kanara region of Karnataka, all of Kerala and Kanyakumari region of Tamil Nadu.
South Malabar refers to a geographical area of the southwestern coast of India covering some parts of the present-day Kerala state. South Malabar covers the regions included in present-day Kozhikode taluk of Kozhikode district, Wayanad district excluding Mananthavady taluk, the whole area of Malappuram district, Chavakkad taluk of Thrissur district, and Palakkad district, excluding parts of Chittur taluk. The Fort Kochi region of Kochi city also historically belongs to South Malabar. The term South Malabar refers to the region of the erstwhile Malabar District south to the river Korapuzha, and bears a high cultural similarity to both the Cochin and the North Malabar regions.
The Latin Catholics of Malabar Coast, also known as Malabar Latin Catholics or Latin Christians of Kerala are a multi-ethnic religious group in Kerala adhering to the Roman Rite liturgical practices of the Latin Church, on the Malabar Coast, the southwestern coast of India. Ecclesiastically, they constitute the ecclesiastical provinces of Verapoly and Trivandrum. They are predominantly Malayali people and speak the Malayalam language, though a subgroup of Luso-Indians speaks the Cochin Portuguese Creole. They trace their origins to the evangelization of Malabar Coast by the Dominican, Franciscan, Jesuit and Carmelite missionaries, mainly French and Portuguese.
↑ Annual Vital Statistics Report – 2018(PDF). Thiruvananthapuram: Department of Economics and Statistics, Government of Kerala. 2020. p.55. Archived from the original(PDF) on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
↑ Mohammad, K.M. "Arab relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries" Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 60 (1999), pp. 226–34.
1 2 3 4 5 Logan, William (2010). Malabar Manual (Volume-I). New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. pp.631–66. ISBN978-8120604476.
1 2 Menon, A. Sreedhara (1987). Kerala History and its Makers. D C Books. p.24. ISBN978-8126421992.
↑ Ancient Indian History By Madhavan Arjunan Pillai, p. 204 [ISBNmissing]
↑ S.C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava (2006) "Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: Volume 14.", p. 18
↑ Aiya VN (1906). The Travancore State Manual. Travancore Government Press. pp.210–12. Archived from the original on 25 November 2023. Retrieved 12 November 2007.
↑ Srinivisa Iyengar, P. T. (1929). History of the Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. Madras: Asian Educational Services. p.515. ISBN978-8120601451.
1 2 Narayanan, M. G. S. Perumāḷs of Kerala. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 31–32.
↑ Kesavan Veluthat, 'The Keralolpathi as History', in The Early Medieval in South India, New Delhi, 2009, pp. 129–46.
1 2 Noburu Karashima (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2014. 146–47.
1 2 3 Frenz, Margret. 2003. 'Virtual Relations, Little Kings in Malabar', in Sharing Sovereignty. The Little Kingdom in South Asia, eds Georg Berkemer and Margret Frenz, pp. 81–91. Berlin: Zentrum Moderner Orient.
↑ R. Leela Devi (1986). History of Kerala. Vidyarthi Mithram Press & Book Depot. p.408. Archived from the original on 24 August 2023. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
↑ Menon, A. Shreedhara (2016). India Charitram. Kottayam: DC Books. p.219. ISBN9788126419395.
↑ Razak, Abdul (2013). Colonialism and community formation in Malabar: a study of Muslims of Malabar.
↑ The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800. Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K. S. Mathew (2001). Edited by: Pius Malekandathil and T. Jamal Mohammed. Fundacoa Oriente. Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR (Kerala)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.
1 2 Varier, M. R. Raghava. "Documents of Investiture Ceremonies" in K. K. N. Kurup, Edit., "India's Naval Traditions". Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1997
↑ Ma Huan: Ying Yai Sheng Lan, The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores, translated by J.V.G. Mills, 1970 Hakluyt Society, reprint 1997 White Lotus Press. ISBN9748496783
↑ Varthema, Ludovico di, The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema, A.D.1503–08, translated from the original 1510 Italian ed. by John Winter Jones, Hakluyt Society, London
↑ Gangadharan. M., The Land of Malabar: The Book of Barbosa (2000), Vol II, M.G University, Kottayam.
↑ The Edinburgh Gazetteer. Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. 1827. pp.63–. Archived from the original on 25 November 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
1 2 Henry Frowde, M.A., Imperial Gazetteer of India (1908–1909). Imperial Gazetteer of India (Newed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Archived from the original on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
1 2 Sarina Singh; Amy Karafin; Anirban Mahapatra (2009). South India. Lonely Planet. ISBN978-1-74179-155-6. Archived from the original on 24 September 2023. Retrieved 6 January 2013.
↑ K.G. Kumar (12 April 2007). "50 years of development". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
↑ "Marine Fisheries". fisheries.kerala.gov.in. Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
↑ Hunter, William Wilson; James Sutherland Cotton; Richard Burn; William Stevenson Meyer; Great Britain India Office (1909). The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol.11. Clarendon Press. Archived from the original on 16 December 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2015.
↑ Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI—Ministry of Shipping) (2005). "Introduction to Inland Water Transport". IWAI (Ministry of Shipping). Archived from the original on 4 February 2005. Retrieved 19 January 2006.
1 2 3 4 5 Brenkert, A.; Malone, E. (2003). "Vulnerability and resilience of India and Indian states to climate change: a first-order approximation". Joint Global Change Research Institute.
↑ Kumar KG (8 October 2007). "Jobless no more?". Business Line. Archived from the original on 6 November 2013. Retrieved 16 November 2012. A study by K.C. Zacharia and S. Irudaya Rajan, two economists at the Centre for Development Studies (CDS), unemployment in Kerala has dropped from 19.1[%] in 2003 to 9.4[%] in 2007.
↑ Heller, Patrick; Törnquist, Olle (13 December 2021). "Making sense of Kerala". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2022. Kerala has specific challenges: persistently high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment. More broadly, as the 21st century unfolds, it becomes increasingly clearer that the role of the State in supporting development must fundamentally change. First, in highly educated societies like Kerala, industrialisation is no longer the path to economic prosperity.
↑ SIDBI Report on Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Sector, 2010. Small Industries Development Bank of India. 2010.
↑ N. Rajeevan (March 2012). "A Study on the Position of Small and Medium Enterprises in Kerala vis a vis the National Scenario". International Journal of Research in Commerce, Economics and Management. 2 (3).
↑ R Ramesh; R Purvaja; A Senthil Vel. Shoreline change assessment for Kerala coast(PDF). National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management, Ministry of Environment and Forests. Archived from the original(PDF) on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
↑ Brenda Maddox mentions in: Maddox, Brenda. "A Marxist Paradise For Women?" New Statesman. (London, England: 1996) 128 no4440 30 January 14, 1999.
↑ Antherjanam, Lalithambika. Cast Me Out If You Will. New York: The Feminist Press, 1997.
↑ Jeffrey, Robin (1987). "Governments and Culture: How Women Made Kerala Literate". Pacific Affairs. 60 (3): 447–72. doi:10.2307/2758883. JSTOR2758883.
1 2 "Kerala HDR 2005". Human Development Report. Asia and the Pacific: United Nations. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
↑ "Human Development Report 2005"(PDF). Human Development Report. Asia and the Pacific: United Nations. Archived from the original(PDF) on 10 March 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2015.
↑ Johnson, Barbara C. (2003). "The Cochin Jews Of Kerala". In Slapak, Orpa (ed.). The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities. Jerusalem: The Israel Museum. p.27. ISBN9652781797.
↑ John Anthony McGuckin (15 December 2010). The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. pp. 377–. Retrieved 18 November 2012. John Wiley & Sons. 2010. ISBN978-1-4443-9254-8.
↑ Singh, Anjana. "Fort Cochin in Kerala 1750–1830 The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu." Brill, Leiden Boston: 2010, 3: 92.
↑ Weil, Shalva. "Jews in India." in M.Avrum Erlich(ed.) Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora, Santa Barbara, CA: ABCCLIO. 2008, 3: 1204–12.
↑ Weil, Shalva.India's Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, Mumbai: MargPublications, 2009. [first published in 2002; 3rdedn.]. Katz 200/*Religion */ 0; Koder 1973; Menachery 1998
↑ Roy, Ranjan (1990). "Discovery of the Series Formula for π by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha". Mathematics Magazine. 63 (5): 291–306. doi:10.2307/2690896. JSTOR2690896.
↑ Pingree, David (1992), "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science", Isis, 83 (4): 554–63, Bibcode:1992Isis...83..554P, doi:10.1086/356288, JSTOR234257, S2CID68570164, One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series without the calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution.
↑ "Missionaries led State to renaissance: Pinarayi". The Hindu. 13 November 2016. Inaugurating on Saturday the valedictory of the bicentenary celebration of the arrival of Church Mission Society (CMS) missionaries to the shores of Kerala, Mr. Vijayan said it was their pioneering work in the fields of education, literature, printing, publishing, women's education, education of the differently-abled and, in general, a new social approach through the inclusion of marginalised sections into the mainstream which brought the idea of 'equality' into the realm of public consciousness. This had raised the standard of public consciousness and paved the way for the emergence of the renaissance movements in the State.
↑ "Kerala to celebrate CMS mission". Church Mission Society. 9 November 2016. Retrieved 4 April 2022. Indian President Pranab Mukherjee, visited CMS College in Kerala, the oldest college in India, and laid the foundation stone of the bicentenary block. He said, 'CMS college is a pioneer of modern education in Kerala. It has been the source of strong currents of knowledge and critical inquiry that have moulded the scholastic and socio-cultural landscape of Kerala and propelled the State to the forefront of social development.'
↑ District Handbooks of Kerala(PDF). Department of Information & Public Relations Government of Kerala. March 2003. pp.19–20. Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
↑ Freeman, Rich (2003). "Genre and Society: The Literary Culture of Premodern Kerala". In Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia
↑ Krishna Kaimal, Aymanam (1989). Attakatha sahithyam. Trivandrum State Institute of Language.
↑ Binoy, Rasmi (27 September 2018). "The river sutra". The Hindu. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
↑ Indian and Foreign Review. Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. 1983. p.25. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
↑ Ranjith KS (2004). Nair PR, Shaji H (eds.). Rural Libraries of Kerala(PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. pp.20–21. ISBN978-8187621812. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
↑ "Tourist Statistics– 2006"(PDF). Department of Tourism. Government of Kerala. 2006. Archived from the original(PDF) on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
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