Under British rule, South Malabar's chief importance lay in producing coconut, pepper, and tiles.[4] Old administrative records of the erstwhile Madras Presidency recorded that the most remarkable plantation owned by the government in the Madras Presidency was the teak plantation at Nilambur, planted in 1844.[5] South Malabar held importance as one of the two districts in the Madras Presidency that lay on the western Malabar Coast, thus accessing the marine route through the Arabian Sea via its ports at Beypore and Fort Kochi. The first railway line of Kerala, from Tirur to Beypore, was laid for it.
Until the arrival of British, the term Malabar was used in foreign trade circles as a general name for Kerala.[7] Earlier, the term Malabar had been used to also include Tulu Nadu and Kanyakumari, which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India.[8][9] The people of Malabar were known as Malabars. The term Malabar is still often used to denote the entire southwestern coast of India.
In the 6th century, Arab sailors called Kerala as Male. The first element of the name, however, was already attested in Cosmas Indicopleustes' Topography, which mentions a pepper emporium called "Male", which clearly gave its name to Malabar (lit.'the country of Male'). The name Malabar is thought to come from the Dravidian word mala (lit.'hill')[10][11] and the Persian word barr (lit.'country/continent').[7][12]
Historically, Arab writers variously called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Al-Biruni (973–1048) must have been the first writer to call this state Malabar.[7] Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works.[13]
Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) stated that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos (Chera dynasty).[17] The North Malabar region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis, was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during the Sangam period.[18] According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a region known as Limyrike began at Naura and Tyndis. However, Ptolemy mentions only Tyndis as the Limyrike's starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 sesterces.[19] Pliny the Elder mentioned that Limyrike was prone by pirates.[20]Cosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that the Limyrike was a source of peppers.[21][22]
Several inscriptions written in Old Malayalam dating from the 10th century have found in Sukapuram near Edappal, which was one of the 64 old Nambudiri villages of Kerala. Descriptions about the rulers of the Eranad and Valluvanad regions can be seen in the Jewish copper plates of Bhaskara Ravi Varman (around 1000 CE) and Viraraghava copper plates of Veera Raghava Chakravarthy (around 1225 CE).[25] At the Muchundi Mosque in Kozhikode, a 13th-century granite inscription written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and Arabic mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.[26]
Eranad was ruled by a Samanthan Nair clan known as Eradis, similar to the Vellodis of neighbouring Valluvanad and Nedungadis of Nedunganad (Ottapalam). The rulers of Valluvanad were known by the title Eralppad or Eradi. The ruler of Eranad later became the Zamorin of Calicut by annexing the port town of Calicut from Polanad, a vassal to Kolathunadu.
India in early 1320. Most of present-day state of Kerala was under the influence of the Zamorin of Kozhikode.
The Zamorin of Kozhikode (Calicut) was the most powerful ruler of South Malabar during the Middle Ages. Under its rule, Kozhikode was the largest city on Malabar Coast, and South Malabar emerged as one of the leading centres of maritime trade on the Indian subcontinent. This continued until the 18th century. The port at Kozhikode was the gateway to the South Indian coast for Arabs, who had a monopoly on foreign trade, and later the Portuguese, Dutch, and British.[27]
The Zamorin, who originally ruled Eranad from Nediyiruppu, developed the port at Kozhikode and relocated there for its maritime trade. In the 14th century, Kozhikode conquered larger parts of central Kerala after seizing the Tirunavaya region from the Kingdom of Valluvanad, which was under control of the Kingdom of Cochin. The Kingdom of Cochin was originally headquartered at Perumpadappu; however, due to the annexation, the kingdom was forced to shift its capital (c.1405) further south, first to Kodungallur and then to Kochi. In the 15th century, Cochin was reduced to a vassal state of Kozhikode, thus leading to the emergence of Kozhikode as the most powerful kingdom in the medieval Malabar Coast.[28]
The Zamorin's empire in 1498. It was the most powerful kingdom in Malayalam-speaking region during Middle Ages.
At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam (Quilon) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy) in the north.[29][30]Ibn Battuta (1342–1347), who visited Kozhikode six times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city—he described Kozhikode as "one of the great ports of the district of Malabar" where "merchants of all parts of the world are found". The king of this place, he says, "shaves his chin just as the Haidari Fakeers of Rome do... The greater part of the Muslim merchants of this place are so wealthy that one of them can purchase the whole freightage of such vessels put here and fit-out others like them".[31] The Chinese sailor Ma Huan (1403), as part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Zheng He,[32] described the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. He noted the 20 or 30 mosques built to cater to the religious needs of the Muslims, the unique system of calculation by the merchants using their fingers and toes (followed to this day), and the matrilineal system of succession. Abdur Razzak (1442–43), Niccolò de' Conti (1445), Afanasy Nikitin (1468–74), Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), and Duarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of the major international trading centres on the Indian subcontinent.[33][34]
The Portuguese arrived at Kappad, Kozhikode, in 1498 during the Age of Discovery, thus opening a direct sea route from Europe to South Asia.[35] The Kunjali Marakkars, who were the naval chiefs of the Zamorin of Kozhikode, are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.[36] In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar, making it the first municipality on the Indian subcontinent; it was later dissolved when Dutch authority weakened in the 18th century.[37] Under British Raj, Kozhikode acted as the headquarters of Malabar District; the port held the superior economic and political position in medieval Kerala coast, while Kannur, Kollam, and Kochi were commercially important secondary ports, where the traders from various parts of the world would gather.[38]
South Malabar was the cultural capital of medieval Kerala. The region was and still is the main hub of Malayalam literature. Tirunavaya, the hub of the Mamankam festival, and Ponnani, the largest hub of Islamic studies in Kerala during the Middle Ages, were located in South Malabar. The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries and was based in the Kingdom of Tanur.[39] In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including series expansion for trigonometric functions.[39][40]
Conolly's plot, the world's oldest teak plantation at Nilambur in eastern Eranad, was planted in the 1840s by District Collector H. V. Conolly.
The northern parts of Kerala were unified under Tipu Sultan during the last decades of the 18th century. Following his defeat in the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the subsequent Treaty of Seringapatam, the regions of Tipu's kingdom were annexed by the East India Company. After the Anglo-Mysore wars, the parts of the Malabar Coast that became British colonies were organized into a district of British India, and divided into North Malabar and South Malabar on 30 March 1793 for administrative convenience. Though the general administrative headquarters of Malabar was at Calicut (South Malabar), the special headquarters of South Malabar was at Cherpulassery, and later Ottapalam.
Initially, Malabar was placed under the Bombay Presidency. Later, in 1799–1800, Malabar and South Canara was transferred to the Madras Presidency. The oldest railway line of Kerala was laid at South Malabar in the 1860s. South Malabar was the centre of the Malabar Rebellion in 1921. On 1 November 1956, this region was annexed with the Indian state of Kerala.[7]
Birthplace of Raja Ravi Varma with his studio in the foreground
In 1705 (ME 880), the son and two daughters of Ittammar Raja of the Parappanad royal house were adopted into the royal house of Kilimanoor. Ittammar Raja's sister and her sons, Rama Varma and Raghava Varma, settled in Kilimanoor and married the now adopted sisters. Marthanda Varma, the founder of the Kingdom of Travancore, was the son of Raghava Varma. The nephew[49] of Raghava Varma, Ravi Varma Koil Thampuran, married the sister of Marthanda Varma. Their son became known as Dharma Raja Kartika Thirunnal Rama Varma.
In 1740, when an allied force[50] led by Dutchman Captain Hockert supporting the Deshinganadu King, attacked Venad, an army from Kilimanoor resisted and then defeated them. Although a small victory, this was the first time an Indian army had defeated a European power. In 1753, in recognition of this feat, Marthanda Varma exempted the areas controlled by the Kilimanoor palace[51] from taxes and granted them autonomy.[52] The present palace complex was built at this time, together with the Ayyappan temple[53] for the family deity, Sastha or Ayyapan.[54]
Velu ThampiDalawa held meetings at Kilimanoor palace while planning uprisings against the British. He handed over his sword at the palace before going into his final battle against the British. India's first president, Rajendra Prasad, received this sword from the palace, and it was kept in the National Museum in Delhi. Afterwards, the sword was moved to the Napier Museum in Trivandrum.
The Palakkad Gap, the largest mountain pass in Kerala's Western Ghats and that connects Kerala with Tamil Nadu by road through Coimbatore city, is located in South Malabar. The region is therefore also known as "The Gateway of Kerala".
The highest peaks in the Malabar District were in the Nilambur (eastern) region of Eranad, near the Nilgiri Mountains.[3] The 2,554m (8,379ft)-high Mukurthi peak, which is situated in the border of modern-day Nilambur Taluk and Ooty Taluk, was the highest point of elevation in Malabar District; today, it is the fifth-highest peak in South India and the third-highest in Kerala after Anamudi (2,696 m) and Meesapulimala (2,651 m). It is also the highest peak in Kerala outside the Idukki district. Anginda peak (2,383 m) was the second-highest peak in the district, and Vavul Mala (2,339 m) was the third-highest.[3] Apart from the main continuous range of the Western Ghats, the region has many small undulating hills in the lowland.[3]
In the British records, the eastern Eranad region was collectively described as "Nilambur Valley".[57] The riverbank of the Chaliyar in Nilambur is known for natural gold fields.[56] Mineral explorations done in the Chaliyar river valley showed reserves of the order of 2.5million cubic meters of placers with 0.1 gram per cubic meter of gold.[58] Eranad has several tributaries of Chaliyar and Kadalundi rivers.
Buses, predominantly run by individual owners, ply routes within the city and nearby locations. City buses are painted green. Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) runs regular services to many destinations in the state and to neighbouring states. The city has three bus stands: private buses to the suburbs and nearby towns depart from the Palayam Bus Stand; private buses to adjoining districts depart from the Mofussil Bus Stand on Indira Gandhi Road (Mavoor Road); KSRTC buses depart from the KSRTC bus stand on Indira Gandhi Road, the largest bus stand in Kerala.[59] There are also KSRTC depots in Thamarassery, Thottilpalam, Thiruvambady, and Vatakara.
Malappuram is well-connected by roads. There are four KSRTC stations in district.[60] The district has two National Highways (NH 66 and NH 966) and numerous State Highways. Kerala PWD maintains 2,680km of road in the district, of which 2,305km are district roads and the remaining 375km are State Highways.[61] The Nadukani ChuramGhat Road connects Malappuram with Nilgiris.[62] The Nadukani–Parappanangadi Road connects the coastal area of Malappuram district with the easternmost hilly border at Nadukani Churam bordering Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu, near Nilambur.[63]
Palakkad has four bus stations: the KSRTC Terminal Palakkad and three Private Bus stands (Stadium Bus Stand, Municipal Bus stand, and Town Bus Stand). The Palakkad KSRTC depot is the only such depot in the district, but is the second-most revenue-generating KSRTC depot in the state after Trivandrum.[67]Stadium Bus Stand is the largest private bus stand in the city, and offers services to the city suburbs and other areas of the district, such as Thrissur and Pollachi. Services to Kozhikode, Mannarkkad, Cherpulassery, Kongad, Sreekrishnapuram, and Kadampazhipuram start from Municipal Stand. Buses to western parts of the district (Ottapalam, Shoranur, Pattambi, and towards Guruvayur) start from Town Stand.
Kozhikode railway station, also known as Calicut railway station, is the largest railway station in the city. At ₹98 crore (equivalent to ₹131croreorUS$16million in 2023) in revenue in 2018, it is the third largest in terms of passenger revenues in Kerala, the largest in Palakkad division, and the seventh largest in Southern Railway.[68] The station has four platforms, two terminals, and a total of six tracks.[69] It is a major railway stations in Kerala, with trains connecting the city to other major cities in India.
An integrated security system was installed at the station in 2012, featuring baggage scanners, CCTVs, and vehicle scanners.[70] The 125th anniversary of the station was celebrated on 2 January 2013.[71]
The railway line to Calicut (now Kozhikode) was opened to traffic on 2 January 1888, and at that time was western terminus of the Madras Railway. The first line in Malabar was laid between Chaliyam (at the time an important port) and Tirur. With the arrival of the new line to Calicut and its growth as an administrative centre, Chaliyam diminished in significance and the railway line to it was subsequently abandoned.[72]
The history of railways in Kerala traces back to this district. The oldest railway station in the state is at Tirur.[64] The stations at Tanur, Parappanangadi, and Vallikkunnu also form parts of the oldest railway line in the state laid from Tirur to Chaliyam.[64] The line was inaugurated on 12 March 1861.[74] In the same year, it was extended from Tirur to Kuttippuram via Tirunavaya.[64] In 1862, it was further extended from Kuttippuram to Pattambi, and then from Pattambi to Podanur.[64] The current Chennai–Mangalore railway line was later formed as an extension of this Beypore–Podanur line.[64]
The Nilambur–Shoranur line is among the shortest as well as picturesque broad gauge railway lines in India.[75] It was laid by the British for the transportation of Nilambur teak.
The Nilambur–Nanjangud line is a proposed railway line connecting Nilambur with Mysore.[76][77]Guruvayur–Tirunavaya railway line is another proposed project.[78] The Ministry of Railways included a railway line connecting Kozhikode–Malappuram–Angadipuram in its Vision 2020 plan. Multiple surveys have been done on the line already.
Kozhikode and Malappuram are served by the Calicut International Airport(IATA: CCJ, ICAO: VOCL), located at Karipur in the Malappuram metropolitan area, about 25 kilometres away from Malappuram City. The airport started operation in April 1988. It has two terminals: one for domestic flights and another for international flights.[80] The airport serves as an operating base for Air India Express and operates Hajj pilgrimage services to Medina and Jeddah from Kerala. There are direct buses to the airport for transportation.
In 2011, there was a proposal by the civil aviation ministry of India for a mini domestic airport at East Yakkara to enhance air connectivity. 60 acres were identified for the project at East Yakkara Palakkad.[81]
Economy
Kozhikode
Kozhikode (Calicut) is the largest economic hub is South Malabar as well as the whole Malabar region. Nedungadi Bank, the first and oldest bank in the modern state of Kerala, was established by Appu Nedungadi at Kozhikode in the year 1899.[82] Service sector dominates the economy, followed by industries.
Cyberpark, an organisation of the Government of Kerala, plans to build, operate, and manage two IT parks for the promotion and development of investment in IT and ITES industries in the Malabar region of Kerala. It would be the third IT hub in the state, and create a total 100,000 direct job opportunities.[83][84] Other planned projects include the Birla IT Park (at Mavoor), and Malaysian satellite city (at Kinaloor) where KINFRA plans to set up a 160-hectare (400-acre) industrial park.
In 2012, Kozhikode was given the tag of "City of Sculptures" ("Shilpa Nagaram") because of the architectural sculptures around the city.[85][86]
Focus Mall in Kozhikode, the first shopping mall of its kind in Kerala
The city has a strong mercantile aspect. The main area of business was once Valiyangadi ("Big Bazaar") near the railway station, but has since shifted to other parts of the city. The commercial heart has moved to Mittai Theruvu (Sweetmeat Street, or S. M. Street), a long street crammed with shops that sell everything from saris to cosmetics. It also houses restaurants and sweetmeat shops. Today, the city has multiple shopping malls, including Focus Mall (first mall of Kerala), HiLITE Mall,[87] Address Mall, and RP Mall.[88]
Malappuram
Kodakkal Tile Factory
The gross district value added (GDVA) of Malappuram in the fiscal year 2018–19 was estimated as ₹ 698.37billion, with a growth of 11.30% compared to the previous year. The district ranks third in GDVA among the districts of Kerala, after Ernakulam and Thiruvananthapuram, as of 2018–19.[89] The growth rate of GDVA showed a zigzag trend between 2012 and 2017. The per capita GDVA was calculated as ₹ 154,463. The net district value added (NDVA) of the district in 2018–19 was ₹ 631.90billion, and the annual growth rate was 11.59%. [89]
The economy of Malappuram significantly depends upon emigrants. Malappuram has the most emigrants in the state. According to the 2016 economic review report published by the Government of Kerala, every 54 per 100 households in the district are emigrant households.[90] Most of them work in the Middle East.
The Kodakkal Tile Factory was run by the Commonwealth Trust at Kodakkal, Tirunavaya, and started in 1887. It is the second tile-manufacturing industry in India. (The first tile factory was at Feroke, which was a part of the then Eranad Taluk.)
The presence of Palakkad Gap and proximity to Coimbatore make Palakkad economically important. Palakkad City is one of the largest industrial hubs in Kerala. The Kanjikode area of Palakkad is the second-largest industrial hub of Kerala after Kochi, and home to production facilities for companies like Indian Telephone Industries Limited (ITI), Instrumentation Limited, Fluid Control Research Institute, Saint-Gobain India Private Limited, Patspin India Ltd, Pepsi, PPS steel (Kerala) Pvt Ltd, United breweries, Empee Distilleries, Marico, BEML, Rubfila International Ltd, and Arya Vaidya Pharmacy.
The commercialization of Palakkad City has experienced steady economic growth in recent years.[as of?] The developments are mainly concentrated on the bypass roads, and include housing develops, shopping centres, hotels, and restaurants.
Recently, Kozhikode got Kerala's first residential International Baccalaureate continuum school, The White School International. It is located in Perumanna and was established in 2016.
The University of Calicut is the largest university in Kerala. It is located in Thenjipalam, about 24 kilometres (15mi) south of Calicut. This university was established in 1968 and was the second university established in Kerala. Most of the colleges offering tertiary education in the region are affiliated with this university.[96] The Calicut Medical College was established in 1957 as the second medical college in Kerala. Since then, the institution has grown into a premier centre of medical education in the state. Presently it is the largest medical institute in the state, with a yearly intake of 250 candidates for its undergraduate programme.
In 1877, a school for young Rajas was started in Kozhikode. This was later opened to Hindu boys of all castes. In 1879, it was affiliated with the University of Madras as a second-grade college, bolstering collegiate education in the district. Secondary education has recorded appreciable progress since 1915. The erstwhile Malabar District (of which the present-day Kozhikode district formed a part) holds a high rank among the districts of the Madras Presidency in secondary education.[97]
The Malappuram district has 1,620 schools,[99] the most in Kerala as per the school statistics of 2019–20. There are 898 lower primary schools,[100] 363 upper primary schools,[101] 355 high schools,[102] 248 higher secondary schools,[103] and 27 vocational higher secondary schools[104] in the district. Besides these, there are 120 CBSE schools and 3 ICSE schools.
554 government schools, 810 aided schools, and 1 unaided school recognised by the Government of Kerala have been digitalised.[105][further explanation needed] In the academic year 2019–20, the total number of students studying in the schools recognised by Government of Kerala was 739,966; this was composed of 407,690 in aided schools; 245,445 in government schools; and 86,831 in the recognised unaided schools.[106]
The Kozhikode radio station of All India Radio has two transmitters: Kozhikode AM (100 kilowatts) and Kozhikode FM [Vividh Bharathi] (10 kilowatts). Private FM radio stations are Radio Mango 91.9 (operated by Malayala Manorama Co. Ltd.), Radio Mirchi (operated by Entertainment Network India Ltd.), and Club FM 104.8 (operated by Mathrubhumi group and Red FM 93.5 of the SUN Network). AIR FM radio stations are Kozhikode – 103.6MHz; AIR MW radio station is Kozhikode – 684kHz.
Satellite television services are available through DD Direct+, Dish TV, Sun Direct DTH, and Tata Sky. Asianet Digital TV is popularly known as ACV telecasts daily city news. Spidernet is another local channel. Other local operators include KCL and Citinet.
The Calicut Press Club was established in 1970 as the centre of all regional media activities, both print and electronic. Beginning with around 70 members, this Press Club became a prestigious and alert media centre in the state, with a present membership of over 280.[119][bettersourceneeded]
Almost all Malayalam channels and newspapers, as well as the Malappuram Press Club, have their bureau at Up Hill, adjacent to Municipal Town Hall. Doordarshan has two major relay stations in the district: one at Malappuram and one at Manjeri. The government of India's Prasar Bharati National Public Service Broadcaster has an FM station in the district (AIR Manjeri FM), broadcasting on 102.7Mhz. Despite lacking private FM stations, Malappuram, Ponnani, and Tirur are among the top ten towns with the highest radio listenership in India.[120]
Palakkad
Major Malayalam newspapers Malayala Manorama, Mathrubhumi, Deshabhimani, Suprabhaatham Daily, and The Hindu have printing centers in city. A few evening newspapers are also published in the city. Local news channels like ACV also function in city. A private FM station operates in Palakkad at Ahalia Campus; there is a long-term demand for setting up a government FM station in Palakkad.[citation needed]
Culture
Kozhikode
Malayalam language
Kozhikode district has made significant contributions to Malayalam literature. During the 17th century, His Highness Sri SamoothiriManavedan Maharaja authored Krishnattam, a manipravala text describing the childhood of Lord Krishna in eight volumes. The district is famous for folk songs or ballads known as Vadakkan Pattukal. The most popular songs celebrate the exploits of Thacholi Othenan and Unniyarcha.
An intellectual debate is held for Vedic scholars, wherein winners receive the title of "Pattathanam". This debate takes place at the Thali Temple during the month of Thulam.
In addition to the Malabar Mahotsavam, the annual cultural fest of Kozhikode,[122] the Tyagaraja Aradhana Trust has conducted a five-day music festival in honour of Tyagaraja every year since 1981. The festival is complete with the Uncchavritti, rendering of Divyanama Kritis and Pancharatna Kritis, and concerts by professional and student musicians throughout the day.[123]
Kozhikode has a tradition of ghazal and Hindustani music appreciation. There are many Malayalam ghazals. The late film director and singer M. S. Baburaj, from Kozhikode, was influenced by ghazal and Hindustani music traditions.[124]
Hindi songs are popular in this city. The Mohammed Rafi Foundation organises musical events on the anniversaries of the birth (on 24 December) and death of legendary singer Mohammed Rafi. These events are estimated to be the largest such "Rafi Nite" gatherings anywhere in India.[125]
As the largest city in the Malabar region, Kozhikode also has a vital role in the entertainment segment. The city's first theatre, Calicut Crown, was opened as early as 1925. The city has more than 10 theatres and two multiplexes, the PVS Film City (the first multiplex in Malabar), and the Crown Theatre.[126]
Kozhikode is known as the "second Mecca" of football, after Kolkata.[127] The EMS Stadium has hosted many international football matches of major football teams. The city is home to international footballers such as T. Abdul Rahman (who played for the nation in many international games, including the 1956 Melbourne Olympic Games), K.P. Sethu Madhavan, Premnath Phillips, Muhamad Najeeb, M. Prasannan, and Sudheer. The seven-a-side form of football is famous in the city.
Other popular games in Kozhikode include cricket,[128] basketball, badminton, and volleyball.
P. T. Usha is a famous Kozhikode athlete who is regarded as one of the greatest athletes India has ever produced; she is often called the "queen of Indian track and field". Currently, she runs the Usha School of Athletics at Koyilandy in Kerala. Other sports personalities include Jimmy George, Tom Joseph, and Premnath Phillips. Jaseel P. Ismail, V. Diju, Aparna Balan, and Arun Vishnu are international badminton players from the city.
The Sports & Education Promotion Trust (SEPT) was established to promote sports development in India, with a focus on football. Started in 2004 and based in Kozhikode, the trust has set up 52 centres called "football nurseries" spread across thirteen districts in Kerala.[129]
Since 2010, the Calicut Mini Marathon has been organised by IIM Kozhikode, with a participation of around 7,000 people every year.
The Malayalam alphabet was first adopted by Thunchath Ezhuthachan, who was born at Tirur and is known as the father of the modern Malayalam language.[41] Tirur is the headquarters of the Malayalam Research Centre. The Mappila paattu poet Moyinkutty Vaidyar was born at Kondotty. He is considered as one of the Mahakavis (a title for 'great poet') of Mappila songs.[41]
Malappuram was the main centre of Mappila Paattu literature in the state.[41]Mappila Paattu poets such as the aforementioned Moyinkutty Vaidyar and Pulikkottil Hyder, as well as Kulangara Veettil Moidu Musliyar (popularly known as Chakkeeri Shujayi), Chakkeeri Moideenkutty, Manakkarakath Kunhikoya, Nallalam Beeran, K. K. Muhammad Abdul Kareem, Balakrishnan Vallikunnu, Punnayurkulam Bapu, and Veliyankode Umar Qasi, chose to work from Malappuram.[41]
The district has also contributed to Kathakali, the classical dance form of Kerala.[41] The Veṭṭathunāṭu rulers, who controlled parts of present-day Tirurangadi, Tirur, and Ponnani Taluks, were noted patrons of arts and learning. A Veṭṭathunāṭu Raja (r. 1630–1640) is said to have introduced innovations in Kathakali, which has come to be known as the "Veṭṭathu Tradition".[130] Thunchath Ezhuthachchan and Vallathol Narayana Menon hail from Vettathunad, the latter of whom is considered the resurrector of modern Kathakali through the establishment of the Kerala Kalamandalam school.[41] Kathakali trainer Vazhenkada Kunchu Nair and Kathakali singers Sankaran Embranthiri and Tirur Nambissan were also from Malappuram.[41]Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma, who played a major role in resurrecting Mohiniyattam in the modern Kerala, hailed from Tirunavaya.[41]Mrinalini Sarabhai, an Indian classical dancer, hailed from erstwhile Ponnani Taluk. Kottakkal Chandrasekharan, Kottakkal Sivaraman, and Kottakkal Madhu are famous Kathakali artists hailing from the group Kottakkal Natya Sangam, established by Vaidyaratnam P. S. Warrier in Kottakkal.
The district has also contributed to traditional ayurveda medicine.[41]Arya Vaidya Sala at Kottakkal is one of the largest ayurvedic medicinal networks in the world.[41]
Kerala Varma Valiya Koyi Thampuran (poet), Raja Raja Varma (poet), and Raja Ravi Varma (painter) were from different branches of the Parappanad Royal Family from Parappanangadi.[131] According to some scholars, the ancestors of Velu Thampi Dalawa also belong to Vallikkunnu near Parappanangadi. The Chief Editor of The Hindu (1898–1905) and Founder Chief Editor of The Indian Patriot, Divan Bahadur C. Karunakara Menon (1863–1922), was also from Parappanangadi.[132]O. Chandu Menon wrote his novels Indulekha (the first major novel written in Malayalam) and Saradha while he was the judge at Parappanangadi Munciff Court. K. Madhavan Nair, the founder of MathrubhumiDaily, comes from Malappuram.
Ponnani's trade relations with foreign countries since ancient times paved the way for a cultural exchange.[41] Persian–Arab art forms and North Indian culture came to Ponnani via this trade. This was also the origin of the hybrid language Arabi Malayalam, which has been used in the composition of some regional poetry.[41] The language's script (also known as Ponnani script) was created during the late 16th century and early 17th century.[41] The script was widely used in the district during the last centuries.[41] Hindustani qawwali and ghazals, which came here as part of the cultural exchange, still thrive in Ponnani. EK Aboobacker, Main, and Khalil Bhai (Khalil Rahman) are some of the famous qawwali singers of Ponnani.
The original headquarters of the Palakkad Rajas were at Athavanad.[28] Several aristocratic Nambudiri Manas are present in the Tirur, Perinthalmanna, and Ponnani taluks. Tirunavaya, the seat of the medieval Mamankam festival, is also present in the district. E. M. S. Namboodiripad, the first Chief Minister of Kerala, hails from Perinthalmanna in the district.[41]
Malabar Premier League was initiated in 2015 to strengthen football in the district.[137] The Calicut University Synthetic Track at Tenhipalam is the apex synthetic track in the district, and is associated with the C. H. Muhammad Koya Stadium.[138] Other major stadiums include those at Areekode, Kottakkal, and Ponnani. A football hub to internationalise the eight major football stadiums of district is proposed.[139] Two new stadium complexes in Tanur and Nilambur are under construction.[140]
Palakkad
Palakkad district has produced several notable poets, playback singers, and actors. The Thrithala–Pattambi region can be described as the cultural capital of the district.
Sports
The Indira Gandhi Municipal Stadium in the center of Palakkad city, once used for major sport events, has fallen into disrepair due to the lack of maintenance; however, the municipality has proposed a renovation of the stadium with international facilities.[141]Fort Maidan,[142] a multi-use stadium in Palakkad, is mainly used for cricket matches. In 2003, the Ranji Trophy was introduced in Fort Maidan. The city has an indoor stadium[143] located near Government Victoria College, Palakkad, with an eight-lane synthetic track.[144]
Centuries of maritime trade has given South Malabar a cosmopolitan cuisine that combines traditional Kerala, Persian, Yemenese, and Arab food culture,[145] and offers a variety of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Pathiri, a type of rice flour pancake, is a primary food throughout South Malabar, and a common breakfast item.[citation needed] Variants of pathiri include neypathiri (made with ghee), poricha pathiri (fried rather than baked), meen pathiri (stuffed with fish), and irachi pathiri (stuffed with beef).[145]Kallummakkaya (mussels) curry, irachi puttu (irachi meaning "meat"), parottas (soft flatbread),[145] and ghee rice are some other specialties. Spices are a hallmark of South Malabar cuisine—black pepper, cardamom, and clove are used profusely. Vegetarian fare includes Sadya, a traditional meal served on a banana leaf.
The Malabar version of biryani (Malayalam: kuzhi mandi) is another popular item, which has influences from Yemen.[145] Various varieties of biriyanis like Kozhikode biriyani[146] and Ponnani biriyani[147] are prepared in South Malabar.[145]
Another specialty is banana chips, which are made crisp and wafer-thin. Other popular dishes are prepared using seafood such as prawns, mussels, and mackerel. Snacks include unnakkaya (deep-fried, boiled ripe banana paste covering a mixture of cashew, raisins, and sugar),[148]pazham nirachathu (ripe banana filled with coconut grating, molasses, or sugar),[148]muttamala made of eggs,[145]chatti pathiri (a dessert made of flour, like a baked, layered chapati with rich filling), arikkadukka,[149] and more.[145] Many of these snacks have their own style in the Ponnani area.[150]
Kozhikode is also famous for haluva, called "sweet meat" by Europeans due to the texture of the sweet. A main road in Kozhikode is named "Mittai Theruvu" ("Sweet Meat Street"), so named for the numerous halwa stores which used to dot it.
However, newer generations are more inclined towards Chinese and American food. Chinese food is very popular among the locals.
Kakkayam Valley – dam site located at Koorachundu in Kozhikode, on the outskirts of the Western Ghats and Malabar Wildlife Sanctuary, home to wild animals including elephants and bison
Sarovaram Bio Park – eco-friendly development near Kottooly, located in an ecosystem consisting of wetlands and mangrove forests containing bird habitat
Malappuram, is one of the 14 districts in the Indian state of Kerala, with a coastline of 70 km (43 mi). The most populous district of Kerala, Malappuram is home to around 13% of the total population of the state. The district was formed on 16 June 1969, spanning an area of about 3,554 km2 (1,372 sq mi). It is the third-largest district of Kerala by area. It is bounded by Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea on either side. The district is divided into seven Taluks: Eranad, Kondotty, Nilambur, Perinthalmanna, Ponnani, Tirur, and Tirurangadi.
Palakkad is one of the 14 districts in the Indian state of Kerala. It was carved out of the southeastern region of the former Malabar District on 1 January 1957. It is located at the central region of Kerala and is the second largest district in the state after Idukki. The city of Palakkad is the district headquarters. Palakkad is bordered on the northwest by the Malappuram district, on the southwest by the Thrissur district, on the northeast by Nilgiris district, and on the east by Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu. The district is nicknamed "The granary of Kerala". Palakkad is the gateway to Kerala due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap, in the Western Ghats. The 2,383 m high Anginda peak, which is situated in the border of Palakkad district, Nilgiris district, and Malappuram district, in Silent Valley National Park, is the highest point of elevation in Palakkad district. Palakkad city is about 347 kilometres (216 mi) northeast of the state capital, Thiruvananthapuram.
Nilambur is a major town, a municipality and a Taluk in the Malappuram district of the Indian state of Kerala. It is located close to the Nilgiris range of the Western Ghats on the banks of the Chaliyar River. This place is also known as 'Teak Town' because of the abundance of Nilambur teaks, which is a variety of a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests. Unlike many Municipalities of India; Nilambur is covered with large amounts of vegetation, making it very scenic.
Ponnani is a municipality in Ponnani Taluk, Malappuram District, in the state of Kerala, India. It serves as the administrative center of the Taluk and Block Panchayat of the same name. It is situated at the estuary of Bharatappuzha, on its southern bank, and is bounded by the Arabian Sea on the west and a series of brackish lagoons in the south.
Tirur is a major municipal town in Tirur Taluk, Malappuram district, in the Indian state of Kerala, spread over an area of 16.55 square kilometres (6.39 sq mi).
Malabar District, also known as British Malabar or simply Malabar was an administrative district on the southwestern Malabar Coast of Bombay Presidency (1792–1800), Madras Presidency (1800–1937), Madras Province (1937–1950) and finally, Madras State (1950–1956) in India. It was the most populous and the third-largest district in the erstwhile Madras State. The historic town of Kozhikode was the administrative headquarters of this district.
Feroke is a Municipality and a part of Kozhikode metropolitan area under Kozhikode Development Authority (K.D.A) in the Kozhikode district of the Indian state of Kerala.
Malappuram is a town in Kerala and the headquarters of the Malappuram district in Kerala, India. It is the 4th largest urban agglomeration in Kerala and the 20th largest in India, spread over an area of 158.20 km2 (61.08 sq mi) including the surrounding suburban areas. The first municipality in the district formed in 1970, Malappuram serves as the administrative headquarters of Malappuram district. Divided into 40 electoral wards, the town has a population density of 4,800 per square kilometre. According to the 2011 census, the Malappuram metropolitan area is the fourth largest urban agglomeration in Kerala after Kochi, Calicut, and Thrissur urban areas and the 20th largest in India with a total population of 3 million. It is the fastest growing city in the world with a 44.1% urban growth between 2015 and 2020 as per the survey conducted by Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) based on the urban area growth during January 2020. Malappuram is situated 54 km southeast of Calicut and 90 km northwest of Palakkad. It is the first Indian municipal body to provide free Wi-Fi connectivity to its entire residents. Malappuram is also the first Indian municipal body to achieve the International Organization for Standardization certificate. It is also the first complaint-free municipality in the state.
Tanur is a coastal town, a municipality, and a block located in Tirur Taluk, Malappuram district, Kerala, India. It is located on the Malabar Coast, 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) north of Tirur and 9 kilometres south of Parappanangadi. It is the 17th-most populated municipality in the state, the fourth-most populated municipality in the district, and the second-most densely populated municipality in Malappuram district, having about 3,568 residents per square kilometre as of the year 2011.
Ramanattukara is a municipality census town in Kozhikode district in the Indian state of Kerala. The town was formerly called Kadungan Chira village. Ramanattukara is located 15 km away from Kozhikode city.
Kadalundi River (Kadalundipuzha) is one of the four major rivers flowing through Malappuram district and kozhikode district in the Indian state of Kerala. The other three are the Chaliyar, the Bharathappuzha and the Tirur River. This rain-fed river is 130 kilometres (81 mi) long and one of the most important rivers in the district. Kadalundi River is also the sixth longest river in Kerala. Kadalundi River passes through [Karuvarakundu, Tuvvur [Melattur, Kerala|Melattur]], Pandikkad, Manjeri, Malappuram, Panakkad, Parappur, Vengara, Tirurangadi, Parappanangadi, Vallikkunnu, and empties itself into Arabian sea at Kadalundi Nagaram in Vallikkunnu on the northwestern border of the district. It is formed by the confluence of the Olippuzha River and the Veliyar River. The Kadalundi originates from the Western Ghats at the western border of the Silent Valley and flows through the district of Palakkad and Malappuram. It has two main tributaries namely Olipuzha and Veliyar. Olipuzha and Veliyar merges together to become Kadalundi River near Melattur. Kadalundi River traverses through the historical regions of Eranad and Valluvanad. The Kadalundi River drains an area of 1274 km2 and has a length of 120 km. The ancient port of Tyndis, which was the second-largest trading port of Chera dynasty, only after to Muziris, is identified with the mouth of this river at Vallikunnu. The Kadalundi Bird Sanctuary spreads over a cluster of islands where the Kadalundipuzha River flows into the Arabian Sea. There are over a hundred species of native birds and around 60 species of migratory birds in large numbers annually.
Parappanangadi is a major town and a municipality in Tirurangadi taluk of Malappuram district, Kerala, India. It is a coastal town located close to the Arabian Sea.
Kadalundi is a village in Kozhikode district, Kerala, India. It is a coastal village close to the Arabian Sea. Kadalundi is famous for its bird sanctuary, which is home to various migratory birds during certain seasons and has been recently declared as a bio-reserve. The Kadalundi–Vallikkunnu Community Reserve is the first community reserve in Kerala. The Kadalundi River and the Chaliyar river, two of the longest rivers of Kerala, merges with the Arabian Sea at Kadalundi. The first railway line in Kerala was laid in 1861 from Tirur to Chaliyam through Tanur, Parappanangadi, Vallikkunnu, and Kadalundi.
Eranad also known as Ernad refers to the erstwhile province in the midland area of Malabar, consisting of Malappuram and nearby regions such as Anakkayam, Manjeri, Kondotty, Nilambur, etc. Currently Eranad Taluk is a Taluk in Malappuram district. Eranad was ruled by a Samanthan Nair clan known as Eradis, similar to the Vellodis of neighbouring Valluvanad and Nedungadis of Nedunganad. The rulers of Eranad were known by the title Eralppad/Eradi. They also used the title Thirumulpad.
PonnaniTaluk is an administrative division in the Malappuram district of Kerala, India. It falls under the Tirur revenue division, with its headquarters in the town of Ponnani. Ponnani Taluk includes Ponnani Municipality and nine gram panchayats. Most administrative offices are located in the Mini-Civil Station in Ponnani.
Tirur Taluk comes under Tirur revenue division in Malappuram district in the Indian state of Kerala. Its headquarters is the town of Tirur. Tirur Taluk contains four municipalities - Tanur, Tirur, Kottakkal, and Valanchery. Most of the administrative offices are located in the Mini-Civil Stations at Tirur, Kuttippuram, and Tanur. Most of the villages in present-day Tirur Taluk were parts of the medieval Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu). The port of Tanur was an important port town in the southwestern coast of India during medieval period.
The Kingdom of Kozhikode, also known as Calicut, was the kingdom of the Zamorin of Calicut, in the present-day Indian state of Kerala. Present-day Kozhikode is the second largest city in Kerala, as well as the headquarters of Kozhikode district.
Chaliyam is a village situated at the estuary of Chaliyar in Kozhikode district of Kerala, India. Chaliyam forms an island, bounded by the Chaliyar in the north, and River Kadalundi in south, and the Conolly Canal in the east. It is located just opposite to Beypore port. Chaliyam was the former terminus of the South-West Line of the Madras Railway. Chaliyam is also famous for the Guinness World Records holder Muhammed Adil, a P.M who covered around seven km in the Chaliyar River with his hand and legs tied with ropes.
Malappuram is one of the 14 districts in the South Indian state of Kerala. The district has a unique and eventful history starting from pre-historic times. During the early medieval period, the district was the home to two of the four major kingdoms that ruled Kerala. Perumpadappu was the original hometown of the Kingdom of Cochin, which is also known as Perumbadappu Swaroopam, and Nediyiruppu was the original hometown of the Zamorin of Calicut, which is also known as Nediyiruppu Swaroopam. Besides, the original headquarters of the Palakkad Rajas were also at Athavanad in the district.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Logan, William (2010). Malabar Manual (Volume-I). New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN9788120604476.
↑ Pamela Nightingale, ‘Jonathan Duncan (bap. 1756, d. 1811)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, May 2009
↑ Mohammad, K.M. "Arab relations with Malabar Coast from 9th to 16th centuries" Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Vol. 60 (1999), pp. 226–34.
↑ According to Pliny the Elder, goods from India were sold in the Empire at 100 times their original purchase price. See
↑ Bostock, John (1855). "26 (Voyages to India)". Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. London: Taylor and Francis.
↑ Indicopleustes, Cosmas (1897). Christian Topography. 11. United Kingdom: The Tertullian Project. pp. 358–373.
↑ Das, Santosh Kumar (2006). The Economic History of Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 301.
↑ Veluthat, Kesavan (1 June 2018). "History and historiography in constituting a region: The case of Kerala". Studies in People's History. 5 (1): 13–31.
↑ Varier, M. R. Raghava. "Documents of Investiture Ceremonies" in K. K. N. Kurup, Edit., "India's Naval Traditions". Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1997
↑ K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.
↑ Ibn Battuta, H. A. R. Gibb (1994). The Travels of Ibn Battuta A.D 1325-1354. Vol.IV. London.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
↑ Ma Huan: Ying Yai Sheng Lan, The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores, translated by J.V.G. Mills, 1970 Hakluyt Society, reprint 1997 White Lotus Press. ISBN974-8496-78-3
↑ Varthema, Ludovico di, The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema, A.D.1503–08, translated from the original 1510 Italian ed. by John Winter Jones, Hakluyt Society, London
↑ Gangadharan. M., The Land of Malabar: The Book of Barbosa (2000), Vol II, M.G University, Kottayam.
↑ DC Books, Kottayam (2007), A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History
↑ The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads 1500–1800. Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K. S. Mathew (2001). Edited by: Pius Malekandathil and T. Jamal Mohammed. Fundacoa Oriente. Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR (Kerala)
1 2 3 4 Roy, Ranjan (1990). "Discovery of the Series Formula for π by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha". Mathematics Magazine. 63 (5): 291–306. doi:10.2307/2690896. JSTOR2690896.
↑ Pingree, David (1992), "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science", Isis, 83 (4): 554–63, Bibcode:1992Isis...83..554P, doi:10.1086/356288, JSTOR234257, S2CID68570164, One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series without the calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution.
↑ The Travancore State Manual Vol 1 to 4; Publisher: Kerala Council for Historical Research; ISBN8185499268; Edition: 1996; Pages: 2500; Author:T.K. Velu Pillai; Editor:S.Raimon; Category:Manuals; Year of Publishing:1940
↑ Encyclopedia of Tourism Resources in India; Author: Dr. Manohar Sajnani, Published in 2001, Published by: Kalpaz Publications; Address: C-30, Satyawati Nagar, Phase-III, Ashok Vihar, Delhi-110052, ISBN81-7835-014-9 (set), ISBN81-7835-018-1 (Vol II)
↑ History of Travancore from the Earliest Times - P. Shungoonny Menon - ISBN8120601696 - Published By: Asian Educational Services
↑ Menon, P Shungoonny (1878). History of Travancore from the Earliest Times by P Shungoonny Menon (Dewan Peishcar of Travancore). 105, Mount Road, Madras: Higginbotham and Company. pp. 152, 153.
↑ M. K. Devassy (1965). 1961 Census Handbook- Kozhikode District(PDF). Directorate of Census Operations, Kerala and The Union Territory of Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands.
↑ Pingree, David (1992), "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science", Isis, 83 (4): 554–563, Bibcode:1992Isis...83..554P, doi:10.1086/356288, JSTOR234257, S2CID68570164, One example I can give you relates to the Indian Mādhava's demonstration, in about 1400A.D., of the infinite power series of trigonometrical functions using geometrical and algebraic arguments. When this was first described in English by Charles Whish, in the 1830s, it was heralded as the Indians' discovery of the calculus. This claim and Mādhava's achievements were ignored by Western historians, presumably at first because they could not admit that an Indian discovered the calculus, but later because no one read anymore the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which Whish's article was published. The matter resurfaced in the 1950s, and now we have the Sanskrit texts properly edited, and we understand the clever way that Mādhava derived the series without the calculus, but many historians still find it impossible to conceive of the problem and its solution in terms of anything other than the calculus and proclaim that the calculus is what Mādhava found. In this case, the elegance and brilliance of Mādhava's mathematics are being distorted as they are buried under the current mathematical solution to a problem to which he discovered an alternate and powerful solution.
↑ "Games in Kerala". Information and Public relations office of Kerala. Archived from the original on 28 April 2006. Retrieved 12 June 2006. Football and Cricket – the Most Popular Games
↑ Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds. "Malayalam" Ethnologue: Languages of the World. 2014: (Dallas, Texas) Web. 29 September 2014.
↑ EncyclopaediaDictionaryIslamMuslimWorld Volume 6. 1988. p.460. Contemporary evaluation within India tends to the view that the Malabar Rebellion was a war of liberation, and in 1971 the Kerala Government granted the remaining active participants in the revolt the accolade of Ayagi, "freedom fighter"
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![Ponnani harbour in mid-1930s mlppurrN jillyi[?] ponnaaniyile haa[?]b[?] (1930-37).jpg](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%BC_%281930-37%29.jpg/300px-%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8A%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%BC_%281930-37%29.jpg)
