Teak (Tectona grandis) is a tropical hardwood tree species in the family Lamiaceae. It is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests. Tectona grandis has small, fragrant white flowers arranged in dense clusters (panicles) at the end of the branches. These flowers contain both types of reproductive organs (perfect flowers). The large, papery leaves of teak trees are often hairy on the lower surface. Teak wood has a leather-like smell when it is freshly milled and is particularly valued for its durability and water resistance. The wood is used for boat building, exterior construction, veneer, furniture, carving, turnings, and various small projects.[citation needed]
Tectona grandis is native to south and southeast Asia, mainly Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Sri Lanka, but is naturalised and cultivated in many countries in Africa and the Caribbean. Myanmar's teak forests account for nearly half of the world's naturally occurring teak.[3] Molecular studies show that there are two centres of the genetic origin of teak: one in India and the other in Myanmar and Laos.[4][5]
Description
Teak forest with large foliage in Parambikulam Tiger Reserve, IndiaTeak forest in Nilambur, India
Teak is a large deciduous tree up to 40m (131ft) tall with grey to greyish-brown branches, known for its high-quality wood. Its leaves are ovate-elliptic to ovate, 15–45cm (5.9–17.7in) long by 8–23cm (3.1–9.1in) wide, and are held on robust petioles which are 2–4cm (0.8–1.6in) long. Leaf margins are entire.[6]
Fragrant white flowers are borne on 25–40cm (10–16in) long by 30cm (12in) wide panicles from June to August. The corolla tube is 2.5–3mm long with 2mm wide obtuse lobes. Tectona grandis sets fruit from September to December; fruits are globose and 1.2–1.8cm in diameter.[6] Flowers are weakly protandrous in that the anthers precede the stigma in maturity and pollen is shed within a few hours of the flower opening.[7] The flowers are primarily entomophilous (insect-pollinated), but can occasionally be anemophilous (wind-pollinated).[8] A 1996 study found that in its native range in Thailand, the major pollinators were species in the bee genus Ceratina.[7]
Wood
Wood texture is hard and rings are porous. The density varies according to moisture content: at 15% moisture content it is 660kg/m3.[9] The heartwood is yellowish to golden-brown. Sapwood is whitish to pale yellowish brown. It can easily separate from heartwood.[citation needed] Teak darkens as it ages. There can be a large variation, depending on which region the teak is from. Old growth has much tighter rings than new growth.[10] There is a leather-like scent in newly cut wood.[11]
Botanical history
Tectona grandis was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus the Younger in his 1782 work Supplementum Plantarum.[12] In 1975, Harold Norman Moldenke published new descriptions of four forms of this species in the journal Phytologia. Moldenke described each form as varying slightly from the type specimen: T.grandis f. canescens is distinguished from the type material by being densely canescent or covered in hairs, on the underside of the leaf, T.grandis f. pilosula is distinct from the type material in the varying morphology of the leaf veins, T.grandis f. punctata is only hairy on the larger veins on the underside of the leaf, and T.grandis f. tomentella is noted for its dense yellowish tomentose hairs on the lower surface of the leaf.[13]
Tectona grandis is found in a variety of habitats and climatic conditions from arid areas with only 500mm of rain per year to very moist forests with up to 5,000mm of rain per year. Typically, though, the annual rainfall in areas where teak grows averages 1,250–1,650mm with a 3–5 month dry season.[19]
Cultivation
Teak in Ghana
Teak's natural oils make it useful in exposed locations and make the timber termite- and pest-resistant. Teak is durable even when not treated with oil or varnish. Timber cut from old teak trees was once believed to be more durable and harder than plantation-grown teak. Studies have shown that plantation teak performs on par with old-growth teak in erosion rate, dimensional stability, warping, and surface checking, but is more susceptible to colour change from UV exposure.[20]
The vast majority of commercially harvested teak is grown on teak plantations found in Indonesia and controlled by Perum Perhutani (a state-owned forest enterprise) that manages the country's forests. The primary use of teak harvested in Indonesia is in the production of outdoor teak furniture for export. Nilambur in Kerala, India, is also a major producer of teak and is home to the world's oldest teak plantation.[21]
Teak consumption raises several environmental concerns, such as the disappearance of rare old-growth teak. However, its popularity has led to growth in sustainable plantation teak production throughout the seasonally dry tropics in forestryplantations. The Forest Stewardship Council offers certification of sustainably grown and harvested teak products. Propagation of teak via tissue culture for plantation purposes is commercially viable.[citation needed]
Teak plantations were widely established in Equatorial Africa during the Colonial era. These timber resources, as well as the oil reserves, are at the heart of the current (2014) South Sudanese conflict.[22]
Much of the world's teak is exported by Indonesia and Myanmar. There is also a rapidly growing plantation-grown market in Central America (Costa Rica) and South America. With a depletion of remaining natural hectares of teak forests, growth in plantations in Latin America is expected to rise.[23]
Hyblaea puera, commonly known as the teak defoliator, is a moth native to southeast Asia. It is a teak pest whose caterpillar feeds on teak and other species of trees common in the region of Southeast Asia.[24]
Uses
Teak's high oil content, high tensile strength, and tight grain make it particularly suitable where weather resistance is desired. It is used in the manufacture of outdoor furniture and boat decks. It is also used for cutting boards, indoor flooring, countertops, and as a veneer for indoor finishings. Although easily worked, it can cause severe blunting on edged tools because of the presence of silica in the wood. Over time teak can weather to a silvery-grey finish, especially when exposed to sunlight.[25]
Teak is used extensively in India to make doors and window frames, furniture, and columns, and beams in homes. It is resistant to termite attacks and damage caused by other insects. Mature teak fetches a very good price. It is grown extensively by forest departments of different states in forest areas. It was also used in the construction of the Kaaba in the Masjid al-Haram of Mecca, which is the holiest structure in the Islamic faith.[26]
Leaves of the teak wood tree are used in making Pellakai gatti (jackfruit dumpling), where batter is poured into a teak leaf and steamed.[27] This type of usage is found in the coastal district of Udupi in the Tulunadu region in South India. The leaves are also used in gudeg, a dish of young jackfruit made in Central Java, Indonesia, and give the dish its dark brown colour.
Teak has been used as a boatbuilding material for over 2000 years (it was found in an archaeological dig in Berenice Panchrysos, a port on the Indian Roman trade route).[28] In addition to relatively high strength, teak is also highly resistant to rot,[29] fungi, and mildew. The wood has a relatively low shrinkage ratio,[30] which makes it excellent for applications where it undergoes periodic changes in moisture. Teak has the unusual property of being both an excellent structural timber for framing or planking, while at the same time being easily worked and finished, unlike some otherwise similar woods such as purpleheart.[31][32] For this reason, it is also prized for the trim work on boat interiors. Due to the oily nature of the wood, care must be taken to properly prepare the wood before gluing.[33]
When used on boats, teak is also very flexible in the finishes that may be applied. One option is to use no finish at all, in which case the wood will naturally weather to a pleasing silver grey.[34] The wood may also be oiled with a finishing agent such as linseed or tung oil.[35] This results in a somewhat dull finish. Finally, teak may also be varnished for a deep, lustrous glow.
Teak is also used extensively in boat decks, as it is extremely durable but requires regular maintenance. The teak tends to wear into the softer 'summer' growth bands first, forming a natural 'non-slip' surface.[34] Any sanding is therefore only damaging. The use of modern cleaning compounds, oils or preservatives will shorten the life of the teak, as it contains natural teak oil a very small distance below the white surface. Wooden boat experts will only wash the teak with salt water, and re-caulk when needed. This cleans the deck and prevents it from drying out and the wood shrinking. The salt helps it absorb and retain moisture and prevents any mildew and algal growth. Over-maintenance, such as cleaning teak with harsh chemicals, can shorten its usable lifespan as decking.[29]
Teak is propagated mainly from seeds. Germination of the seeds involves pretreatment to remove dormancy arising from the thick pericarp. Pretreatment involves alternate wetting and drying of the seed. The seeds are soaked in water for 12 hours and then spread to dry in the sun for 12 hours. This is repeated for 10–14 days and then the seeds are sown in shallow germination beds of coarse peat covered by sand. The seeds then germinate after 15 to 30 days.[36][37]
Clonal propagation of teak has been successfully done through grafting, rooted stem cuttings, and micropropagation. While bud grafting onto seedling root stock has been the method used for establishing clonal seed orchards that enables assemblage of clones of the superior trees to encourage crossing, rooted stem cuttings and micro propagated plants are being increasingly used around the world for raising clonal plantations.[38]
Illegal logging is prevalent in countries with natural teak forests, including India and Burma.[39]
Since 1989, the state-owned Myanma Timber Enterprise has run the country's logging industry.[40] In 2014, Myanmar's government imposed a strict ban on exporting wild-grown teak logs.[41] In 2015, 153 Chinese loggers were sentenced to life in prison for illegal logging.[42] Illegal teak logging persists, especially in contested areas.[41] While it is illegal for timber to be exported via land borders, 95% of Myanmar's teak enters China through the China–Myanmar border.[40]
Since the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état, illegal logging of teak and tamalan trees has surged in Sagaing Region, predominantly in key contested battlegrounds, including Kani, Yinmabin, Kantbalu, Indaw, and Banmauk townships.[43] Both the Burmese military and resistance groups have profited from the illegal logging trade.[43] Smugglers transport the wood to India to circumvent economic sanctions and use the Myanma Timber Enterprise to license the wood as being sourced from permitted areas.[43][44]
EU regulation
The regulation that addresses the import of timber, including teak, into the EU from unknown or illegal sources is the EU Timber Regulation (EUTR) No. 995/2010. This regulation aims to prevent the trade of illegally harvested timber and timber products within the EU market. It places an obligation on operators who place timber and timber products on the EU market to ensure they are legally harvested.
This regulation specifically applies to teak and other high-risk timber species, particularly those sourced from countries with poor forest governance or illegal logging activities. Myanmar, for example, has been a focus due to concerns over illegal teak harvesting from there.
For more detailed information, you can refer to the full text of the regulation here.
Previously, the world's biggest recorded teak tree was located within the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary in the Palakkad District of Kerala in India, named Kannimara. The tree is approximately 47.5 metres (156ft) tall. Its age is between 450 and 500 years and is considered one of the oldest teak trees in the world.[46][47]
In 2017, a tree was discovered in the Ottakallan area of the Thundathil range of the Malayattoor Forest Division in Kerala with a girth of 7.65 metres (25.1ft) and a height of 40 metres (130ft).[48] A teak tree in Kappayam, Edamalayar, Kerala, which used to be considered the biggest, has a girth of 7.23 metres.[48]
Tree No. 23 is the oldest planted teak on earth. It is located in Conolly's plot (the world's oldest teak plantation), Nilambur, Kerala.[49]
Related Research Articles
Mahogany is a straight-grained, reddish-brown timber of three tropical hardwood species of the genus Swietenia, indigenous to the Americas and part of the pantropical chinaberry family, Meliaceae. Mahogany is used commercially for a wide variety of goods, due to its coloring and durable nature. It is naturally found within the Americas, but has also been imported to plantations across Asia and Oceania. The mahogany trade may have begun as early as the 16th century and flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries. In certain countries, mahogany is considered an invasive species.
Ochroma pyramidale, commonly known as the balsa tree, is a large, fast-growing tree native to the Americas. It is the sole member of the genus Ochroma. The tree is famous for its wide usage in woodworking, due to its softness and its high strength compared to its low density. The name balsa is the Spanish word for "raft."
Illegal logging is the harvest, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws. The harvesting procedure itself may be illegal, including using corrupt means to gain access to forests; extraction without permission, or from a protected area; the cutting down of protected species; or the extraction of timber in excess of agreed limits. Illegal logging is a driving force for a number of environmental issues such as deforestation, soil erosion and biodiversity loss which can drive larger-scale environmental crises such as climate change and other forms of environmental degradation.
Pulpwood can be defined as timber that is ground and processed into a fibrous pulp. It is a versatile natural resource commonly used for paper-making but also made into low-grade wood and used for chips, energy, pellets, and engineered products.
Tectona is a genus of tropical hardwood trees in the mint family, Lamiaceae. The three species are often collectively called teak.
Articles on forestry topics include:.
Intsia bijuga, commonly known as Borneo teak, ipil, Johnstone River teak, and kwila, amongst many other names, is a species of tree in the flowering plant family Fabaceae, native to coastal areas from east Africa, through India and Southeast Asia to Australia and the western Pacific. It has significant importance to indigenous cultures in many parts of its range, but is also threatened by illegal logging due to its high quality timber. It is most commonly found in tropical coastal forests.
Na ʻĀina Kai Botanical Gardens are nonprofit botanical gardens located at 4101 Wailapa Road, Kīlauea, Kauaʻi, Hawaiʻi. A variety of guided tours are offered Tuesday through Friday; an admission fee is charged for each.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and guide to forestry:
Teak wood is used for making boats, furniture, and other things which require resistance to the elements. Teak is used for outdoor furniture but is not recommended for full exposure to sunlight. Being more expensive than most other woods, teak furniture has become something of a status symbol. Not only is it common for a teak bench, chair, or table to last 70 years with the correct care plan, it is also common to pass down such furniture to future generations as an heirloom.
Milicia excelsa is a tree species from the genus Milicia of the family Moraceae. Distributed across tropical Central Africa, it is one of two species yielding timber commonly known as ọjị, African teak, iroko, intule, kambala, moreira, mvule, odum and tule.
Deforestation in Laos is a major environmental concern, with Laos losing forest area to legal and illegal logging.
Plantation teak is a tropical hardwood tree from the genus Tectona, endemic to Southeast Asia that is exclusively planted for the purpose of forestry management, for either commercial timber plantations or ecological restoration. Although the genus Tectona is native to the tropical regions of Southeast Asia, primarily Indonesia, Myanmar, India, Bangladesh and Thailand, the cultivation of plantation teak is economically viable in other tropical regions such as Central America.
Proteak is a forestry company that cultivates teak trees on plantations located on reclaimed ranch lands in the dry tropical regions of Mexico and Latin America. Based out of Mexico City, Mexico, Proteak has satellite offices in Wimberley, Texas and Tepic, Mexico. At their manufacturing facilities, Proteak produces a range of teak products including: cutting boards, butcher blocks, decking, flooring and lumber.
T. grandis may refer to:
Deforestation in Myanmar led to a reduction in forest cover from 70% of the country in 1948 to 48% by 2014. Myanmar possesses the largest expanse of tropical forest in mainland Southeast Asia, which contains high biodiversity. As of 2010, Myanmar's living forest biomass held 1,654 million metric tons of carbon and over 80 endemic species.
Teak, tectona grandis, is a hardwood tree native to much of South and Southeast Asia, including Myanmar. Due to its natural water resistance, teak is sought out for a variety of uses including furniture-making and shipbuilding. Teak grows throughout much of Burma, but was first exploited in the Tenasserim region in the southeast of Burma on the Malay Peninsula Though it has long been used by locals, teak has been important to the economy of Myanmar since British Colonization and remains a political issue today.
Kaptai National Park is a national park in Bangladesh situated in Rangamati District. It was established in 1999 and its area is 5,464.78 hectares. Prior to the declaration of the national park, it was known as Sitapahar Reserve. The original Sitapahar Reserve area was 14,448.0 acres. Out of this an area of 100 acres have been dereserved for the establishment of the industrial estate at Kaptai. It is about 57 kilometre from Chittagong city. It comprises with two Ranges namely Kaptai Range and Karnaphuli Range. Kaptai National park is managed under CHT South Forest Division. It is historically important because teak plantations in Bangladesh were started from this area. Its forest type is mixed evergreen forest. In 2009 IPAC project started its activities in this protected area.
Lawkananda Wildlife Sanctuary is a protected area in Myanmar's Mandalay Region, covering an area of 0.47 km2 (0.18 sq mi) and ranging in elevation from 45 to 70 m. It borders the Irrawaddy river close to Bagan and was established in 1995.
A tree plantation, forest plantation, plantation forest, timber plantation or tree farm is a forest planted for high volume production of wood, usually by planting one type of tree as a monoculture forest. The term tree farm also is used to refer to tree nurseries and Christmas tree farms. Plantation forestry can produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries and other private landowners. Christmas trees are often grown on plantations, and in southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have recently replaced the natural forest.
↑ Herbison-Evans, Don (6 September 2007). "Hyblaea puera". University of Technology, Sydney. Archived from the original on 24 July 2008. Retrieved 12 March 2008.
↑ "49 pieces of the world's most powerful wood hold the Kaaba". Al Arabiya English. Al Arabiya. 9 December 2016. Retrieved 27 May 2023. The roof of the Kaaba is held by 49 piece of teak wood brought from Burma and processed in Jeddah. They were evenly distributed on the walls of the Kaaba.
↑ Shrivastava, Kumar Sambhav; VENUGOPAL, P N; Mahapatra, Richard (15 November 2011). "Fall of the paragon". Down to Earth. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
