The cinema of Indonesia refers to films produced domestically in Indonesia. The statutoryIndonesian Film Board, or BPI, defines Indonesian films as "movies that are made by or using Indonesian resources whose Intellectual Property Right is owned either entirely or partly by Indonesian citizen or Indonesian legal entity".[5]
Cinema in Indonesia dates back to the early 1900s.[6] Until the 1920s, most cinemas in Indonesia were created by foreign studios, mostly from Europe and the United States, whose films would then be imported to the country. Most of these films were silent documentaries and feature films from France and the United States. Many documentaries about the nature and life of Indonesia were sponsored by the Dutch East Indies government, and were usually made by Dutch or Western European studios. The first domestically produced documentaries in Indonesia were produced in 1911.[7] However, the first domestically produced film in the Dutch East Indies was in 1926: Loetoeng Kasaroeng, a silent film and adaptation of the Sundanese legend of the same name.[8] During 1926, there were two movie theatres, the Oriental and the Elita, in Bandung.[9][10] The first movie theatre in Jakarta was the Alhamra Theatre, which opened in 1931.[11]
Indonesian film slowly lost its place and popularity due to the domination of Hollywood and foreign films in movie theaters throughout the 1990s. In the wake of the Indonesian financial crisis and political movements, the industry struggled to raise public interest in attending movie theaters, and most films stuck to teenage dramas, horror, and adult genres. After the Reform in the beginning of 2000, the Indonesian film industry was strengthened by a growing number of young filmmakers. While the industry was still adjusting to the new constitutions, Indonesian cinema started to reconstruct its identity and regain its former popularity.
The film industry is currently the fastest-growing subsector of Indonesia's creative economy.[12] The number of moviegoers in the country were more than 52 million in 2019. In 2023, the local film industry in Indonesia set a new record with 20 films attracting over 1 million viewers each.[13]
The Indonesian film industry released 230 films in 2019.[14][15] As of 2019, there were about 2,000 screens in Indonesia, which was expected to reach 3,000 by 2020.[needs update]21 Cineplex (which owns PT Omega Film, which monopolizes distribution of films distributed by the American major film studios), CGV Cinemas (previously Blitzmegaplex), and Cinépolis (previously Cinemaxx) currently dominate the movie theatre industry in Indonesia.[14][1]
The first showing of films in the Dutch East Indies was in 1900,[6] and over the next twenty years, foreign productions—which were mostly from the United States—were imported and shown throughout the country.[16] Domestic production of documentaries began in 1911[7] but were unable to compete with imported works.[16] By 1923, a local feature film production spearheaded by the Middle East Film Co. was announced, but the work was not completed.[17]
The first domestically produced film in the Indies was Loetoeng Kasaroeng, a 1926 silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp. This adaptation of the Sundanese legend was made with local actors by the NV Java Film Company in Bandung and premiered on 31 December 1926 at the Elite and Majestic Theatres in Bandung.[8] The following year, George Krugers—who had served as a technician and cinematographer for Loetoeng Kasaroeng[18]—released his directorial debut (the second film in the Indies), Eulis Atjih. Owing to Loetoeng Kasaroeng's limited release, Kruger was able to advertise his film as the colony's first.[19] A year later, the second novel to be adapted to film in Indonesia, Setangan Berloemoer Darah, was produced by Tan Boen Soan.[20]
Ethnic Chinese directors and producers, capitalising on the success of films produced in Shanghai, China, became involved in the colony's cinema beginning in 1928, when Nelson Wong completed Lily van Java.[21][22] Although the Wongs went on hiatus, other ethnic Chinese became involved in film. Several Chinese-owned start-ups are recorded from 1929 onward, including Nancing Film with Resia Boroboedoer (1928) and Tan's Film with Njai Dasima (1929).[23] By the early 1930s, Chinese-owned businesses were the dominating force in the country's film industry.[24]
After the Great Depression reached the Indies, production slowed tremendously. The Dutch East Indies government collected higher taxes and cinemas sold tickets at lower prices, ensuring that there was a meagre profit margin for local films. As a result, cinemas in the colony mainly showed Hollywood productions, while the domestic industry decayed.[25]The Teng Chun, who had made his debut in 1931 with Boenga Roos dari Tjikembang, was the only producer able to release films during 1934 and early 1935; his low-budget but popular films were mainly inspired by Chinese mythology or martial arts, and although aimed at ethnic Chinese, proved popular among native audiences because of their action sequences.[26]
Poster for Terang Boelan, one of three films credited with reviving the Indies' failing film industry.
In an attempt to show that locally produced, well-made films could be profitable, the Dutch journalist Albert Balink, who had no formal film experience,[27] produced Pareh in 1935 in collaboration with Nelson Wong and his brothers. Though the film, costing 20 times as much as most contemporary productions, was an ultimate failure, it affected The Teng Chun's directorial style; the latter took less traditional stories.[28] Balink's next attempt, Terang Boelan, was released two years later. Unlike Pareh, Terang Boelan was a marked commercial success, earning 200,000 Straits dollars (then equivalent to US$114,470[29]) in two months.[30] According to American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider, these two films are Indonesia's most important films of the 1930s.[31]
The triple successes of Terang Boelan, Fatima (1938), and Alang-Alang (1939) revived the domestic film industry.[32] Four new production houses were established in 1940,[33] and actors and actresses previously attached to theatrical troupes entered the film industry, which was reaching new audiences.[34] The new works—fourteen in 1940 and thirty in 1941[35]—generally followed the formula established by Terang Boelan: songs, beautiful scenery, and romance.[36] Others, such as Asmara Moerni, attempted to reach the growing native intelligentsia by drawing journalists or figures from the growing nationalist movement into cinema.[37]
Japanese occupation
After its genesis during the Dutch colonial era, the Indonesian film industry was co-opted by Japanese occupiers during the Second World War as a propaganda tool. The Japanese government immediately halted all production of film. Then, the Office of Cultural Enlightenment (啓民文化指導所), which was headed by Ishimoto Tokichi, appropriated facilities from all filmmaking organisations, consolidating them into a single studio which became the Jakarta branch of Nippon Eigasha (日本映画社), or Nichi'ei.[38] The majority of films made in Indonesia under the Japanese were educational films and newsreels produced for audiences in Japan. The Jakarta branch was strategically placed at the extreme southern end of Japan's empire and soon became a centre of newsreel production. Popular news serials such as News from the South and Berita Film di Djawa were produced. Japanese newsreels promoted such topics as conscripted "romusha" labourers (ロムシャの生活, 1944), voluntary enlistment into the Imperial Japanese Army (南の願望, 1944), and Japanese language acquisition by Indonesian children (ニッポン語競技会, 1944).[39]
Local Japanese-sponsored film production (other than newsreels) remained essentially negligible, and the domestic exhibition market was too underdeveloped to be financially viable. However, Nichi'ei's occupation of the Indonesian film industry was a strategic victory over the West, demonstrating that a non-Western Asian nation could displace Hollywood and the Dutch. Indonesia was one of the last areas in the empire to surrender, and many who worked at Nichi'ei stayed on after defeat to work for Indonesian independence from the Dutch.[39]
Korean director Hae Yeong (or Hinatsu Eitaro) migrated to Java from Korea in 1945, where he made the controversial documentary Calling Australia (豪州の呼び声, 1944). Calling Australia was commissioned by the Imperial Japanese Army and depicted Japanese prisoner of war camps in a positive light, showing prisoners feasting on steak and beer, swimming, and playing sports. After the war, the film caused such a stir that the Netherlands Indies Film Unit rushed into production of the counterpoint film Nippon Presents (1945), which used some of the POWs from Calling Australia to reject that film's viewpoint. Two decades later, Australian filmmaker Graham Shirley assembled the remaining survivors to make Prisoners of Propaganda (1987), yet another documentary about how, in his view, both regimes had conspired to exploit the prisoners each for their own purposes.[39] After the war, Hae changed his name to Dr. Huyung, married an Indonesian woman with whom he had two sons, and directed three films before his death in 1952: Between Sky and Earth (1951), Gladis Olah Raga (1951), and Bunga Rumar Makan (1952).
After independence
Former cinema Megaria (ca. 1960–80), today Cinema Metropole XXI
After independence, the Sukarno government used the film industry for nationalistic, anti-imperialist purposes and foreign film imports were banned. After the overthrow of Sukarno by Suharto's New Order regime, films were regulated through a censorship code that aimed to maintain the social order and Suharto's grip on society.[40]Usmar Ismail, a director from West Sumatra, made a major impact in Indonesian film in the 1950s and 1960s through his company Perfini.[41]Djamaluddin Malik's Persari Film often emulated American genre films and the working practices of the Hollywood studio system, as well as remaking popular Indian films.[42]
In the late 1950s, a number of political aspects impacted the film industry, not only in production but also in distribution. Threats of burning the movie theaters and film boycotts by anti-imperialist movements meant that the profit for movie theaters dropped drastically. In 1954, a first Indonesian superhero film, Sri Asih, was made.[43] This film was directed by Tan Sing Hwat, and starred Turino Djunaedy and Mimi Mariani as Sri Asih.[43] Around 1964 there were 700 movie theaters in Indonesia, which fell to 350 in 1965. The post-independence era was greatly influenced by the 30 September Movement, which led to a dilemma for local movie theater owners when the local films produced weren't enough to fill the program slot. The economic crash had put the growing industry on hold and paralyzed people's purchasing power; however, at the end of the 1960s, the film industry had survived mostly because of popular foreign imports.
By the 1990s, imports of foreign films resumed, and the quantity of Indonesian films was reduced due to competition, especially from the United States and Hong Kong. The number of movies produced decreased significantly, from 115 in 1990 to 37 in 1993.[47]
In 1992, the Law Number 8 on Film categorized production as a non-obligatory activity and lifted the requirement of production permits. These permits had previously served as a connection between filmmakers and production houses and the government. As a result, data on film production—both commercial and independent—decreased in number and accuracy throughout the 1990s.[citation needed]
Rampant counterfeiting and the increasing popularity of television also contributed to the decline of Indonesian cinema. Multivision Plus (under Raam Punjabi) controlled one of many cinema companies who produced sinetron (soap operas). The majority of films produced were exploitaive, adult-themed B-movies shown in budget cinemas, outdoor screenings, direct-to-video, or on television.[44] In 1996, 33 films were made in Indonesia, the majority of which were filled with adult-themed content. This number continued to decrease significantly; only seven domestic films were made in 1999.
Number of feature films produced in Indonesia from 1926 to 2017
2000s
Under the Reform era, independent filmmaking lead to a rebirth of the film industry in Indonesia, where films started addressing previously banned topics such as religion, race, and love.[40]
The number of domestic films made increased from six in 2001 to ten in 2002. It continued to increase significantly as the years passed on. Notable films included Ada Apa Dengan Cinta?, directed by Rudi Soedjarwo in 2002; Eliana Eliana, directed by Riri Riza; and Arisan!, starring Tora Sudiro. 2005 saw the release of Beauty and Warrior, Indonesia's first animatedfeature film, and Gie, directed by Riri Riza and based on the life of Indonesian activist Soe Hok Gie.
Ayat-Ayat Cinta (2008), directed by Hanung Bramantyo, was notable in that it attracted Muslim audiences like never before in Indonesian film history, thanks to its narrative crossover between Islam and modern romance.[48]
In 2009, Infinite Frameworks released their first full-length animation movie Sing to the Dawn (Meraih Mimpi). The movie itself features some foreigners, but all artists and dubbers were Indonesian, with most of the dubbers being celebrities such as Gita Gutawa, Surya Saputra, and Jajang C. Noer.
2010s
From 2010 to 2011, due to the substantial increase in value-added tax (VAT) applied to foreign films, cinemas no longer had access to many foreign films. This has caused a massive ripple effect on the country's economy. It is assumed that this increased the purchasing of unlicensed DVDs.[citation needed] In 2011, the minimum cost to view a foreign film not screened locally was IDR 1,000,000, equivalent to US$100, as it included a plane ticket to Singapore.[49]
The Indonesian film market is in the C, D, and E classes,[clarification needed] and due to this, foreign porn stars such as Sasha Grey, Vicky Vette, Maria Ozawa, Sora Aoi, and Rin Sakuragi were invited to play a part in movies. Most locally made movies were low-budget horror films.[50]
During the decade, Indonesian cinema experienced significant improvements in industry production and distribution compared to previous decades. New associations appeared to support production, and new movie theaters were constructed in areas outside the island of Java.
Domestically, the government's efforts to promote local films with the regulation of Law Number 33 on Film in 2009 had a positive impact on the development of the industry. Article 10 explained that film activities and show business actors must prioritize Indonesian films, and prioritize the use of domestic power sources. Additionally, Article 12 clarifies that actors are prohibited from showing films from only one production house, and imported films are prohibited from exceeding 50% of the showing hours within six consecutive months in order to avoid monopolistic practices or external competition.[citation needed]
Indonesian films increasingly appeared at international festivals. The decade also saw an increase in film collaboration with other countries in distribution and production.
2020s
The COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 paralyzed the domestic and foreign film industry. Indonesia became one of the countries with the highest infection rate in the world in July 2021, with around 44,700 active cases.[citation needed] This forced the government to make an emergency decision to enforce restrictions on community activities (PPKM), namely the restriction of various group activities. As a result, film-making activities were ordered to be closed or temporarily suspended nationally from mid-March 2020. Nationally, 68 cinemas were closed: 387 screens spread across 33 cities and 15 provinces in Indonesia.
Although limited by the obligation to keep distance and work online, Indonesian filmmakers have not stopped writing and making films, and production house entrepreneurs continue working through online platforms. These adaptations paralleled the rise in popularity of online streaming services, and encouraged local industries to improve the quality of their platforms and cooperate with national television channels to avoid the economic crisis caused by the pandemic. Various independent production houses have started to produce their films with independent online platforms such as Vidio and Viddsee.[citation needed]
A former major film festival in Indonesia was the Jakarta International Film Festival (JiFFest), held every year in December since 1999.[59] The festival experienced a two-year hiatus in 2011 and 2012, but resumed for its last edition in 2013.[60] Jakarta also hosted film festivals such as the 52nd Asia-Pacific Film Festival (APFF) on 18–22 November 2008.[61]
National film market
Movie theaters
Exterior of La Piazza, which housed La Piazza 21 (later La Piazza XXI) in Jakarta, since closed and as of March 2023 being demolished
Records show that there were movie theatres named as Oriental and Elita during 1926 in Bandung.[9][10] The earliest cinema hall in Jakarta was the Alhamra Theater at Sawah Besar, which was established in 1931. Other old cinema halls in Jakarta were the Astoria, Grand, Metropole, Rex, Capitol, Rivoli, Central, and Orion.[11]
As of 2019, there were about 2,000 screens in Indonesia, which was expected to reach 3,000 by 2020.[1]
The largest cinema chain in Indonesia is 21 Cineplex, which has cinemas spread throughout Indonesia. Founded in 1987, Cinema XXI currently (as of July 2023) operates 1,235 screens across 230 theaters in 71 cities, with a target of reaching 2,000 screens within the next five years. It has three separate brands to target different markets: Cinema 21, Cinema XXI, and The Premiere. Since 2012, Cinema 21 outlets are gradually being renovated to become Cinema XXI.
Another cinema chain is Blitzmegaplex, which opened its first location in 2006 and became the second biggest movie theater in the country. In 2017, the brand name was changed to CGV.[62] As of January 2019, it had opened 57 theaters with 249 screens in 21 cities across Indonesia.[63] The company's Megaplex at Grand Indonesia in Jakarta is dubbed Indonesia's largest cineplex by the MURI (Indonesian Record Museum).
Cinemaxx, launched by Lippo Group, opened its first cinema at The Plaza Semanggi on 17 August 2014. In 2018, Cinemaxx (now Cinépolis) operated 45 cinemas with 203 screens in Indonesia.[1] In 2018, it expected to open 300 cinemas with 2,000 screens spread across 85 cities within the ten years.[64]
In May 2017, Agung Sedayu Group opened FLIX Cinema, with its first outlet at PIK Avenue, North Jakarta. Three months later, it opened its second outlet at Grand Galaxy Park, Bekasi. It plans to open outlets at District 8 Shopping Centre, South Jakarta, and the Mall of Indonesia, North Jakarta (replacing CGV).
Many smaller independent cinemas also exist, such as Platinum, New Star, BES Cinema, Surya Yudha Cinema, and Dakota Cinema.
Movie-goers
In the regulation of the Minister of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia Number 34 of 2019 concerning the Circulation, Performance, Export and Import of Films, Article 17 explains the need for monthly notification of the number of viewers of a film through a data collection system in order to carry out functions in the field of cinema development. This data collection is carried out digitally. For each film entered in national cinemas, including local films and imported films, it includes the audience gains based on show hours and detailed locations.[citation needed]
Year
Movie-goers
2011
15,565,132
2012
18,887,258
2013
12,716,790
2014
15,657,406
2016
34,088,298
2017
39,135,910
Various studies insist on the recent fragmentation of audiences in Indonesia, film theatre audiences being only a part of the totality of film viewers.[65][66]
Tan's Film was a film production house in the Dutch East Indies. Established by the brothers Tan Khoen Yauw and Tan Khoen Hian on September 1, 1929, its films were mostly targeted at native ethnic groups. Starting with Njai Dasima in 1929, the company released fifteen movies before ultimately being dissolved after the Japanese occupation. The Tans and the Wong brothers established Tan & Wong Bros in 1948 to continue this work.
Pareh, released internationally as Pareh, Song of the Rice, is a 1936 film from the Dutch East Indies. Directed by the Dutchmen Albert Balink and Mannus Franken, it featured an amateur native cast and starred Raden Mochtar and Soekarsih. The story follows the forbidden love between a fisherman and a farmer's daughter.
Mannus Franken was a Dutch filmmaker who played an important role in the development of Indonesian cinema. He made his debut as a writer before working with Joris Ivens in producing two documentary films. In 1934 he was called to the Dutch East Indies by Albert Balink to help with the production of Pareh (1936). Franken stayed in the Indies until before World War II, making newsreels. After the war he returned to the country and continued this work. In 1949 Franken returned to the Netherlands, where he made another film before his death.
Albert Balink was a Dutch journalist and filmmaker who contributed to early Indonesian cinema. Born in the Netherlands, he began a career in film journalism in the Dutch East Indies. A self-taught filmmaker, in the mid-1930s, he released a documentary and two feature films, before immigrating to the United States and resuming his journalistic career.
Java Pacific Film was a short-lived film production company that helped make significant contributions to Indonesian cinema in the 1930s.
The Teng Chun, also known by his Indonesian name Tahjar Ederis, was an Indonesian film producer. Born to a rich businessman, The became interested in film while still a youth. After a period as an exporter, in 1930 he established Cino Motion Picture to produce films in the Dutch East Indies. In a little over a decade he and his company had released at least 31 films, including some of the country's first talkies. Although he experienced a brief resurgence during the 1950s, after Indonesia became independent, he spent the last years of his life as an English teacher.
Hajji Raden Mochtar, often credited as Rd Mochtar, was an Indonesian actor. Of noble descent, Mochtar was discovered by Albert Balink and first cast in the commercial failure Pareh (1936). Rising to popularity after the release of Terang Boelan the following year, he spent nearly sixty years in film, while also becoming a businessman and farmer.
Abisin Abbas, better known by his pseudonym Andjar Asmara, was a dramatist and filmmaker active in the cinema of the Dutch East Indies. Born in Alahan Panjang, West Sumatra, he first worked as a reporter in Batavia. He became a writer for the Padangsche Opera in Padang, where he developed a new, dialogue-centric style, which later spread throughout the region. After returning to Batavia in 1929, he spent over a year as a theatre and film critic. In 1930 he joined the Dardanella touring troupe as a writer. He went to India in an unsuccessful bid to film his stage play Dr Samsi.
Terang Boelan is a 1937 film from the Dutch East Indies. Written by Saeroen, directed by Albert Balink, and starring Rd Mochtar, Roekiah and Eddie T. Effendi, Terang Boelan follows two lovers who elope after one is almost forced to marry an opium smuggler. The film was shot in the Indies and Singapore, and was partially inspired by the 1936 Hollywood film The Jungle Princess. It was aimed at native audiences and included keroncong music, which was popular at the time, and several actors from Balink's previous work Pareh (1936).
Lilly van Java, also known as Melatie van Java, is a 1928 film from the Dutch East Indies directed by Nelson Wong. Initially meant to be produced by South Sea Film and shot by an American director, the film – which follows a woman told to marry a man she does not love – was ultimately completed by Wong's Halimoen Film. Details on its cast and performance are contradictory, although the film is recognised as the first of a long series of ethnic Chinese-produced films in the country. It is likely a lost film.
Loetoeng Kasaroeng is a 1926 fantasy film from the Dutch East Indies which was directed and produced by L. Heuveldorp. An adaptation of the Sundanese folktale Lutung Kasarung, the film tells of a young girl who falls in love with a magical lutung and stars the children of noblemen. Details on its performance are unavailable, although it is known to have been of poor technical quality and thought to have performed poorly. It was the first film produced in the country and the first to feature a native-Indonesian cast. It is likely a lost film.
The Wong brothers were three ethnic Chinese film directors and cameramen active in the cinema of the Dutch East Indies. The sons of an Adventist preacher, the brothers – Nelson (1895–1945), Joshua (1906–1981), and Othniel (1908–1986) – received much of their education in the United States before going to Shanghai and establishing The Great Wall Productions.
Karnadi Anemer Bangkong is a 1930 comedy from the Dutch East Indies directed by George Krugers. It is considered the country's first talkie, although parts were silent and the sound quality was poor. Based on a popular Sundanese novel, the film was considered controversial by the native audience.
Raden Mas Kartolo was an Indonesian actor and songwriter. Born in Yogyakarta to a noble family, he entered the theatre and married the actress Roekiah around 1933. The two, living in Batavia acted in numerous movies together, starting with the 1938 hit Terang Boelan. However, Roekiah was always cast with other actors as her romantic interest. After Roekiah died in 1945, Kartolo brought the family to Yogyakarta and worked with Radio Republik Indonesia until his death. One of his sons, Rachmat Kartolo, went on to be an actor in the 1960s and 1970s.
Sam Pek Eng Tay is a 1931 film directed and produced by The Teng Chun and released in the Dutch East Indies. It is based on the Chinese legend The Butterfly Lovers, which follows the doomed love between a rich girl and a commoner boy. The film was a commercial success, inspiring The Teng Chun to direct several further films based on Chinese mythology. The name derives from the given names of the legend's two main characters, Liang Shanbo (梁山伯) and Zhu Yingtai (祝英台).
Fatima is a 1938 film from the Dutch East Indies directed by Othniel and Joshua Wong. Written by Saeroen, it starred Roekiah, Rd Mochtar, and ET Effendi and followed two lovers who are disturbed by a rich youth. The film followed the same formula as the earlier hit Terang Boelan, and saw commercial success domestically. It is one of three films which Misbach Yusa Biran credits with reviving the domestic film industry, which had been faltering.
Kedok Ketawa is a 1940 action film from the Dutch East Indies. Union Films' first production, it was directed by Jo An Djan. Starring Basoeki Resobowo, Fatimah, and Oedjang, the film follows a young couple who fight off criminals with the help of a masked man.
Gagak Item is a 1939 bandit film from the Dutch East Indies directed by Joshua and Othniel Wong for Tan's Film. Starring Rd Mochtar, Roekiah, and Eddy T. Effendi, it follows a masked man known only as "Gagak Item". The black-and-white film, which featured the cast and crew from the 1937 hit Terang Boelan, was a commercial success and received positive reviews upon release. It is likely lost.
Ouw Peh Tjoa, also known by the Malay-language title Doea Siloeman Oeler Poeti en Item, is a 1934 film from the Dutch East Indies. It was directed and produced by The Teng Chun. Adapted from Legend of the White Snake, a Chinese folktale, it follows a magical snake who passes as a human but ultimately dies. The film, now possibly lost, was followed by one sequel, Anaknja Siloeman Oeler Poeti, in 1936.
1 2 "Loetoeng Kasaroeng". filmindonesia.or.id (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Konfidan Foundation. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
"Albert Balink". Encyclopedia of Jakarta (in Indonesian). Jakarta City Government. Archived from the original on 17 October 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2012.
"Foreign Exchange". The New York Times. New York. 8 June 1938. Retrieved 24 November 2012.(subscription required)
Imanjaya, Ekky (2006). A to Z about Indonesian Film (in Indonesian). Bandung: DAR! Mizan: Didistribusikan oleh Mizan Media Utama.
Kristanto, JB (2005). Katalog Film Indonesia 1926–2005 (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Nalar bekerjasama dengan Fakultas Film dan Televisi, Institut Kesenian Jakarta [dan] Sinematek Indonesia. ISBN9789799939531.
"Lily van Java". Encyclopedia of Jakarta (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Jakarta City Government. Archived from the original on 8 July 2010. Retrieved 21 August 2012.
"Tjoet Nja Dhien". Monash University. 21 May 1988. Retrieved 19 August 2011.
Said, Salim (1982). Profil Dunia Film Indonesia[Profile of Indonesian Cinema] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Grafiti Pers. OCLC9507803.
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![<i>Fatima</i> (1938 film) 1938 [[Dutch East Indies]] film](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Fatima_ad.png/320px-Fatima_ad.png)
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