The culture of Indonesia (Indonesian: Budaya Indonesia) has been shaped by the interplay of indigenous customs and diverse foreign influences. With over 1,300 distinct ethnic groups, including significant Austronesian and Melanesian cultures, contributing to its rich traditions, languages, and customs, Indonesia is a melting pot of diversity. Positioned along ancient trade routes between the Far East, South Asia, and the Middle East, the country has absorbed cultural practices influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam, and Christianity. These influences have created a complex cultural tapestry that often differs from the original indigenous cultures.
Examples of the fusion of Islam with Hinduism include JavaneseAbangan belief. Balinese dances have stories about ancient Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms, while Islamic art forms and architecture are present in Sumatra, especially in the Minangkabau and Aceh regions. Traditional art, music and sport are combined in a martial art form called Pencak Silat.
The Western world has influenced Indonesia in science, technology and modern entertainment such as television shows, film and music, as well as political system and issues. India has notably influenced Indonesian songs and movies. A popular type of song is the Indian-rhythmical dangdut, which is often mixed with Arabic, Javanese and Malay folk music.
Indonesia treasures a diverse range of traditional music, notably from Java and Bali, where gamelan holds a central place. Originating in Java, gamelan is renowned for its intricate compositions and unique ensemble of instruments, including metallophones like gambang and bonang, as well as resonant gongs such as kenong and gong ageng.[3] Beyond its musical complexities, gamelan embodies profound cultural narratives and communal identities, playing a pivotal role in rituals, ceremonies, and local storytelling traditions.[4] The rhythmic patterns and melodic interplays reflect a deep connection to spiritual and social contexts, offering insight into the historical and philosophical underpinnings of Indonesian society. UNESCO's designation of gamelan as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity underscores its cultural importance in Indonesia.[5]
The angklung, a traditional musical instrument from West Java made from bamboo, has also received international recognition from UNESCO as part of the intangible cultural heritage.[11] In contrast, the Sasando from East Nusa Tenggara features an instrument made from a split leaf of the Lontar palm, resembling a harp and producing a soothing sound.[12]
Kroncong is traditional music genre in Indonesia, featuring guitars and ukuleles. It was introduced by Portuguese traders in the 15th century. Traditional “Keroncong Tugu” groups can be found in North Jakarta and Maluku, showcasing strong Portuguese influences. A modern variation of kroncong is known as Pop Kroncong.[12]
Other notable traditional music genres in Indonesia include Tanjidor from Betawi culture in Jakarta,[13] involving a brass and woodwind ensemble, and Jaipongan from West Java, combining Sundanese music with dance.[14] In the Maluku Islands, Sawat Lenso dance music blends Portuguese and local influences, featuring instruments like the rebana (tambourine) and the ukulele. The music of Nias includes unique instruments such as the aramba (a type of gong) and the doli-doli (a type of slit drum).
On June 29, 1965, Koes Plus, a leading Indonesian pop group of the 1960s to 1980s, was imprisoned in Glodok, West Jakarta, for playing Western-style music. After the resignation of President Sukarno, the law was rescinded, and in the 1970s, the Glodok prison was dismantled and replaced with a large shopping mall. The story of Koes Plus highlights Indonesia's evolving musical landscape and cultural exchanges.[15]
Dangdut, a genre that emerged in the 1970s, is a blend of local Indonesian music with Indian, Arabic, and Javanese, Malay influences. It is characterized by its distinct drum beat and flute melodies. Dangdut has become one of the most popular music genres in Indonesia, known for its lively rhythms and often performed at various social gatherings and events.[16][17]
Some examples of Indonesian traditional music instruments
Talempong, a traditional percussion instrument from West Sumatra, consisting of a series of small gongs that are played by striking them with mallets.
Sapeh, a traditional stringed instrument from East Kalimantan, known for its distinctive shape and melodic, resonant sound.
Kolintang, a traditional xylophone-like instrument from North Sulawesi, consisting of wooden bars of varying lengths that are struck with mallets.
Sasando, a traditional stringed instrument from East Nusa Tenggara. It features a resonating body made from palm leaves and multiple strings that create a rich, harmonious sound.
Indonesian dance reflects the rich diversity of culture from the many ethnic groups that compose the nation of Indonesia. The dances showcase Austronesian roots, Melanesian tribal dance forms, and influences from foreign countries such as Indian subcontinent, Mainland China, and the Middle East, as well as European styles introduced during colonization. With over 3,000 distinct dances, each ethnic group contributes its own unique styles and traditions. Indonesian dances can be categorized into three historical eras: the Prehistoric Era, the Hindu-Buddhist Era, and the Islamic Era, and they fall into two main genres: court dance and folk dance.[18]
Reog, a traditional dance from East Java, showcases mystical masks and vibrant performances.
Sumatra showcases a rich tapestry of traditional dances that highlight its cultural diversity. In West Sumatra, the Tari Piring (Plate Dance) demonstrates skill in balancing plates with graceful movements, symbolizing harmony and elegance.[19]Aceh's Saman dance captivates with its fast-paced rhythm and synchronized movements performed by groups, embodying communal and spiritual values. In 2011, UNESCO officially recognized Aceh's traditional Saman dance as an Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding.[20] In North Sumatra, the lively Tor-tor dance, performed by the Batak people, is known for its energetic movements and significant ritualistic role.[21][22]Riau stands out with the elegant Melayu dance, characterized by graceful gestures often seen at ceremonial occasions. Meanwhile, Jambi and Bangka Belitung celebrates the Zapin dance, seamlessly blending Arabic influences with local traditions. Gending Sriwijaya in South Sumatra preserves the cultural legacy of the ancient Srivijaya Empire through its rhythmic music and intricate choreography.[23]
In Java, court dances like Bedhaya and Serimpi are performed in the royal courts of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Bedhaya, considered sacred, features slow, deliberate movements symbolizing harmony between earthly and divine realms. Serimpi emphasizes grace and refinement, often depicting stories from Javanese mythology and royal traditions with elegant movements and intricate patterns.[24][25][26]
The topeng dance (Mask Dance) is another prominent Javanese tradition where dancers wear masks portraying characters from Javanese folklore, history, and mythology. Accompanied by traditional gamelan music, the dance combines dramatic and theatrical elements. Gambyong dance, known for its graceful movements, is performed during ceremonies and celebrations in Central Java. This dance conveys messages of joy and cultural pride, showcasing Javanese aesthetics and values influenced by Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic traditions that have shaped Java's artistic landscape over centuries.[27][28] Folk dances like Kuda Lumping feature performers mimicking riding horses made of woven bamboo. This energetic dance, accompanied by lively gamelan music, highlights rhythmic movements that captivate audiences.[29]Reog, originating from Ponorogo, East Java, combines dance, drama, and elaborate costumes to depict mythical stories and mystical creatures with powerful movements and mesmerizing displays.[30][31]
Legong, one of the iconic dances in Bali, embodies grace, storytelling, and cultural richness.
In Bali, dance forms a fundamental aspect of the culture, encompassing various genres such as Wali (sacred dances), Bebali (semi-sacred dances), and Balih-balihan (entertainment dances). in 2015 UNESCO recognizes three genres of traditional dance in Bali, as -Intangible cultural heritage.[32] The island's dances are characterized by their profound spiritual significance and vibrant artistic expressions. One of the most celebrated dances is the Legong, known for its delicate finger movements, intricate footwork, and expressive gestures that narrate mythical stories and cultural themes.[33] Another iconic Balinese dance is the Barong dance, a dramatic performance portraying the eternal battle between good (Barong) and evil (Rangda). This dance is not only a cultural ritual but also a captivating theatrical spectacle that mesmerizes audiences with its elaborate costumes, dynamic choreography, and symbolic narrative.[34]
The Kecak dance, also known as the “Ramayana Monkey Chant”, is another notable example of Bali's rich dance heritage. This unique dance-drama combines rhythmic chanting and synchronized movements of a large group of male performers, retelling episodes from the Hindu epic Ramayana. The rhythmic chanting of "cak" creates a hypnotic atmosphere, making Kecak a distinctive and memorable cultural experience in Bali.[35]
In Kalimantan, the Dayak people uphold rich cultural traditions through their captivating performances, one of which is the Hudoq dance. This vibrant and intricate dance involves wearing elaborate masks and costumes designed to represent various spirits. The Hudoq is not merely a performance but a profound spiritual ritual aimed at seeking blessings for a bountiful harvest.[36] The Kancet Papatai, which depicts scenes of bravery and heroism, is a significant part of Dayak culture. This dance tells stories of ancient warriors and their battles, using energetic movements and traditional weaponry to convey a sense of valor and strength.[37]
Kalimantan is also home to the Banjarese. The Banjar people perform the Baksa kembang dance, a graceful and elegant performance that involves intricate hand movements and beautiful floral arrangements. This dance is often performed at weddings, celebratory events, and to welcome guests, symbolizing beauty and prosperity.[38][39]
In Sulawesi, traditional dances serve as vibrant expressions of cultural heritage, offering unique insights into local traditions and values. One such example is the Poco-poco, originating from North Sulawesi, which has transcended borders to become popular, notably in Malaysia. However, controversy erupted in early April 2011 when Malaysian Islamic clerics banned the Poco-Poco dance for Muslims, citing perceived Christian origins and concerns that its steps resembled the sign of the cross, despite this Poco-Poco remains a cherished part of social gatherings and community events in various regions.[40] In Central Sulawesi, the Dero dance promotes community unity through its circular formations and synchronized steps, often accompanied by lively music and chants at local festivals. Meanwhile, in South Sulawesi, the graceful Pakarena dance captivates audiences with its intricate storytelling conveyed through elegant movements and traditional costumes, preserving Bugis cultural narratives. Additionally, the Paraga dance demonstrates impressive athleticism by blending acrobatic and martial arts-inspired movements, symbolizing cultural pride during festive occasions.
In the Maluku Islands, the cakalele dance, a warrior dance, is performed with shields and swords, reflecting the region's martial traditions.[41]In the northern Maluku, there is a dance called the Gala dance. Gala Dance is a traditional dance originating from the Sula Islands Regency, North Maluku. Gala dance is generally celebrated to welcome guests.In addition to welcoming guests, gala dances are also celebrated during the harvest season, traditional parties, and folk parties and are performed by men and women in pairs.[42]
In Papua, the Sajojo dance is wi In addition to welcoming guests, Serving as both entertainment and a profound expression of Papuan cultural identity. Another notable dance is the War Dance (Tarian Perang), performed by tribes such as the Dani and Yali. This dance symbolizes bravery and valor, accompanied by rhythmic drumming and chanting, with dancers adorned in traditional attire embellished with feathers and shells, enhancing the visual and cultural impact of the performance.
Bedhaya, a classical Javanese dance, known for its intricate and graceful movements.
Saman, a traditional dance from Aceh, characterized by its fast-paced, synchronized movements and rhythmic handclapping.
Jaipongan, a traditional dance from West Java, known for its lively, rhythmic movements and vibrant music. It blends elements of Sundanese dance and music.
The Wayang show, the traditional shadow puppet theatre of the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese cultures, is a rich and ancient art form that showcases several mythological legends such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and many more. These performances are deeply rooted in the cultural heritage of Indonesia and serve not only as entertainment but also as a means of conveying moral and philosophical lessons. The shadow puppets, known as "wayang kulit," are typically crafted from sheets of leather, which are meticulously carved and painted to create intricate designs. These puppets are then ounted on bamboo sticks and manipulated behind a white screen with a light source behind it to cast shadows, creating the illusion of moving figures. Traditional puppet makers, known as "dalang," possess exceptional skills to craft these unique and intricate shadow puppets.[43][44]
Another significant form of wayang theatre is Wayang wong, which translates to "human wayang." This form of Javanese theatre transforms the wayang stories into live dance drama performances featuring human actors. Wayang wong combines elaborate costumes, expressive gestures, and traditional music to bring to life the mythical tales and moral teachings inherent in the wayang tradition. The performers undergo rigorous training to master the precise movements and expressions required to convey the characters' emotions and the story's nuances.
Wayang performances are accompanied by a gamelan orchestra, which provides a rich and dynamic musical backdrop. The music, along with the rhythmic narration by the dalang, enhances the overall atmosphere and emotional impact of the story. The dalang, who is both a puppeteer and a storyteller, plays a crucial role in the performance. They not only manipulate the puppets but also provide voices for all the characters, deliver dialogue, and add sound effects, demonstrating remarkable dexterity and vocal versatility.
Ondel-ondel, a large puppet figure featured in Betawi folk performance
Another form of local drama is Javanese Ludruk, originating in East Java, blends comedy, drama, and audience interaction with improvised dialogue and local humor, making it a favorite among locals for its lively performances. Ketoprak, another traditional Javanese theater form, integrates drama, music, dance, and comedy, often weaving Javanese folklore and moral teachings into its narratives, commonly staged in village squares or traditional markets. SundaneseSandiwara, from West Java portrays historical or mythological tales through music, dance, and drama, offering insights into Sundanese culture. BetawiLenong, from Jakarta, features humorous storytelling in the local dialect, often with satire and social commentary reflecting Betawi cultural values.
Ondel-ondel, a Betawi folk performance, showcases large puppet figures paraded during festivals, symbolizing Jakarta's Betawi community spirit and cultural heritage. These dramas are known for their humor and audience engagement, bringing communities together in celebration.
Randai is a folk theatre tradition of the Minangkabau people of West Sumatra, usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals. It incorporates music, singing, dance, drama and the “silek” or pencak silat martial art, with performances often based on semi-historical Minangkabau legends and love story.
Bangsawan, found in Riau and other Malay-speaking regions, combines elements of drama, music, and dance. It often features romantic or historical narratives, showcasing the region's cultural heritage and its connections to wider Malay cultural traditions.
Various Balinese dance drama also can be included within the traditional form of Indonesian drama.
Modern performing art also developed in Indonesia with its distinct style of drama. Notable theatre, dance, and drama troupe such as Teater Koma are gaining popularity in Indonesia as their drama often portray social and political satires of Indonesian society.[46]
Some examples of Indonesian Dance Drama and Theatre
Wayang Golek, a traditional puppet theatre from West Java, featuring intricately crafted wooden puppets used to tell stories from folklore and mythology.
Lenong, a traditional theatrical performance from Jakarta, known for its humorous and lively skits.
Randai, a traditional Minangkabau performing art from West Sumatra, combining dance, music, and theater to present stories and cultural values through dynamic and engaging performances.
Arja (drama), a traditional Balinese performing art that blends dance, drama, and music to depict epic stories and local legends.
A demonstration of Pencak Silat, a form of martial arts.
The art of Pencak Silat was created and firstly developed in the islands of Java and Sumatra.[47] It is an art for survival and practised throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Centuries of tribal wars in Indonesian history had shaped silat as it was used by the ancient warriors of Indonesia. Silat was used to determine the rank and position of warriors in old Indonesian kingdoms.
Contacts with Indians and Chinese has further enriched silat. Silat reached areas beyond Indonesia mainly through the diaspora of Indonesian people. People from various regions like Aceh, Minangkabau, Riau, Bugis, Makassar, Java, Banjar, etc. moved into and settled in Malay Peninsula and other islands. They brought silat and passed it down to their descendants. The Indonesian of half-Dutch descent are also credited as the first to have brought the art into Europe.
Pencak silat was used by Indonesian independence fighters during their struggle against the Dutch colonial rule. Unfortunately, after Indonesia achieving their independence, pencak silat became less popular among Indonesian youth compare to foreign martial arts like Karate and Taekwondo. This probably because silat was not taught openly and only passed down among blood relatives, the other reason is the lack of media portrayal of the art.
Efforts have been made to introduce and reintroduce the beauty of silat to Indonesian youth and the world. Exhibitions and promotions by individuals as well as state-sponsored groups helped the growing of silat's popularity, particularly in Europe and United States. Indonesian 2009 Silat movie Merantau is one of Indonesian efforts to introduce silat to the international scene.
Another martial art from Indonesia is Tarung Derajat. It is a modern combat system created by Haji Ahmad Drajat based on his experience as a street fighter. Tarung Drajat has been acknowledged as a national sport by KONI in 1998 and is now used by Indonesian Army as part of their basic training.[49]
In Eastern Indonesia, there is a type of martial art hitting with a whip or stick. Caci is a form of fighting with a whip or stick. It appears to be indigenous to Flores in East Nusa Tenggara, but it is also practised in Bali and Lombok.
In 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the then-oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Borneo. In December 2019, however, figurative cave paintings depicting pig hunting in the Maros-Pangkep karst in Sulawesi were estimated to be even older, at at least 43,900 years old. The finding was noted to be "the oldest pictorial record of storytelling and the earliest figurative artwork in the world".[51][52]
Kamasan Palindon Painting detail, an example of Kamasan-style classical painting
Indonesian painting before the 19th century is mostly restricted to the decorative arts, considered to be a religious and spiritual activity, comparable to the pre-1400 European art. Artists' names are anonymous since the individual human creator was seen as far less important than their creation to honour the deities or spirits. Some examples are the Kenyah decorative art, based on endemic natural motifs such as ferns and hornbills, found decorating the walls of Kenyah longhouses. Another notable traditional art is the geometric Toraja wood carvings. Balinese paintings are initially the narrative images to depict scenes of Balinese legends and religious scripts. The classical Balinese paintings are often decorating the lontar manuscripts and also the ceilings of temples pavilion.
Under the influence of the Dutch colonial power, a trend toward Western-style painting emerged in the 19th century. In the Netherlands, the term "Indonesian Painting" is applied to the paintings produced by Dutch or other foreign artists who lived and worked in the former Netherlands-Indies. The most famous indigenous 19th-century Indonesian painter is Raden Saleh (1807–1877), the first indigenous artist to study in Europe. His art is heavily influenced by Romanticism.[53] In the 1920s Walter Spies settled in Bali, he is often credited with attracting the attention of Western cultural figures to Balinese culture and art. His works have somehow influenced Balinese artists and painters. Today Bali has one of the most vivid and richest painting traditions in Indonesia.
The 1920s to 1940s were a time of growing nationalism in Indonesia. The previous period of the romanticism movement was not seen as a purely Indonesian movement and did not develop. Painters began to see the natural world for inspiration. Some examples of Indonesian painter during this period are the Balinese Ida Bagus Made and the realistBasuki Abdullah. The Indonesian Painters Association (Persatuan Ahli-Ahli Gambar Indonesia or PERSAGI, 1938–1942) was formed during this period. PERSAGI established a contemporary art philosophy that saw artworks as reflections of the artist's individual or personal view as well as an expression of national cultural thoughts.[54][55]
Modern painting of Prince Panji meeting three women in the jungle
Wood carvings
Indonesian wood carving
The art of wood carving is quite well-developed in Indonesia. Other than tribal art woodcarvings of Asmat, Batak, Dayak, Nias, and Toraja area is well known for its refined wood carving culture; they are Jepara in Central Java and Bali. Mas village near Ubud in Bali is renowned for its wood carving art. Balinese woodcarving today has a sustained tourist market in Bali.
In South Papua, Asmat art consists of elaborate stylized wood carvings such as the bisj pole and is designed to honour ancestors. Many Asmat artefacts have been collected by the world's museums, among the most notable of which are those found in the Michael C. Rockefeller Collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City and the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam. Bisj poles are carved by Asmat religious carvers (wow-ipits) after a member of their tribe or community had been killed and headhunted by an enemy tribe. Carved out of a single piece of a wild mangrove tree, Bisj poles can reach heights of up to 25 feet (7.62 m). Their carvings depict human figures standing on top of each other, as well as animal figures, phallic symbols, and carvings in the shape of a canoe prow. The Asmat participated in headhunting raids and cannibalism as rituals, many rituals involved the Bisj poles, including dancing, masquerading, singing and headhunting—all performed by men.
In North Sumatra, the people of Nias placed great value on wooden figures or adu. The sole purpose of the Nias figures was to fulfil ritual needs, whether it is to ensure wealth or to perform specific beneficial rite. Niassan figures vary in size, from as small as 20 centimetres (7.9 in) in height to more than 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall. When an elderly person died, the family would make a wooden statue known as adu zatua. The statue was unveiled on the fourth day after the death of the person. The shape of the wooden statue reflects the status of the person who used them: the more powerful the owner, the more impressive the statue will be made. Nias people believed that the deceased person's spirits reside in the statue, so all events that occurred in the family were shared with the ancestor statues through prayers. Ancestor statues were placed in the main room of the house, sometimes more than a hundred. A missionary work in 1930 had recorded the removal of 'over 2000 "idols" from a house of new northern convert.' Some missionaries even recorded houses collapsing under the weight of these ancestor figures. Small adu zatua were bound together horizontally using a rattan and pegs.
Many ancestor figures were destroyed in 1916 by Christian missionary movements which saw them as an old blasphemous religious symbol. Some were sold to collectors and can be found in museum or private collections around the world.
In Sulawesi, Torajans carve wood, calling it Pa'ssura (or "the writing"). One of the Toraja wood carvings is Tau tau, Tau tau is a kind of human statue made of wood or bamboo. Torajans believe that the dead can take their possessions with them to the afterlife, the effigies are usually equipped with small possessions. Traditionally, the effigies were simply carved, only to show the gender of the deceased. However, they have become more and more elaborate, actually attempting to imitate the likeness of the deceased. Nowadays, Tau tau has a photographic likeness to the people they represent.
Some examples of Indonesian wood carving for rituals
Indonesia has a long history of stone, bronze and Iron Ages arts. Indonesia has a rich history of Hindu–Buddhist sculpture and architecture that has been shaped by a complex fusion of local, indigenous culture combined with foreign customs. Some Indonesian artifacts made from gold and bronze dating back to the 10th century are exhibited in the US.[56] The megalithic sculptures can be found in numerous archaeological sites in Sumatra, Java to Sulawesi. The native Indonesians tribes have their own distinct tribal sculpture styles, usually created to depict ancestors, deities and animals. The stone sculpture artform particularly flourished in 8th-to-10th-century Java and Bali, which demonstrate the influences of Hindu-Buddhist culture, both as stand-alone works of art and also incorporated into temples. The most notable sculpture of the classical Hindu-Buddhist era of Indonesia are the hundreds of meters of relief and hundreds of stone buddhas at the temple of Borobudur in central Java. Approximately two miles of exquisite relief sculpture tell the story of the life of Buddha and illustrate his teachings. The temple was originally home to 504 statues of the seated Buddha.
The examples of notable Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist sculptures are; the statues of Hindu deities; Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Durga, Ganesha and Agastya enthroned in rooms of Prambanan temples, the Vishnu mounting Garuda statue of king Airlangga, the exquisite statue of Eastern Javanese Prajnaparamita and 3.7 meters tall Dvarapala dated from Singhasari period, and also the grand statue of Bhairava Adityawarman discovered in Sumatra. Today, the Hindu-Buddhist style stone sculptures are reproduced in villages in Muntilan near Borobudur also in Trowulan the former capital site of Majapahit in East Java, and Bali, and sold as a garden or pool ornament statues for homes, offices and hotels.
The walls of candi also often displayed bas-reliefs, either serve as decorative elements as well as to convey religious symbolic meanings; through describing narrative bas-reliefs. The most exquisite of the temple bas-reliefs can be found in Hindu and Buddhist temples. The first four terraces of Borobudur walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world.[57] The Buddhist scriptures describes as bas-reliefs in Borobudur such as Karmavibhangga (the law of karma), Lalitavistara (the birth of Buddha), Jataka, Avadana and Gandavyuha. While in Prambanan the Hindu scriptures is describes in its bas-relief panels; the Ramayana and Bhagavata Purana (popularly known as Krishnayana).
The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted a temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as a reference for historians to research certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also the mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship.
For centuries, Indonesian vernacular architecture has shaped settlements in Indonesia which commonly took the form of timber structures built on stilts dominated by a large roof. The most dominant foreign influences on Indonesian architecture were Indian, although European influences have been particularly strong since the 19th century and modern architecture in Indonesia is international in scope.
As in much of Southeast Asia, traditional vernacular architecture in Indonesia is built on stilts, with the significant exceptions of Java and Bali. Notable stilt houses are those of the Dayak people in Borneo, the Rumah Gadang of the Minangkabau people in western Sumatra, the Rumah Bolon of the Batak people in northern Sumatra, and the Tongkonan of the Toraja people in Sulawesi. Oversized saddle roofs with large eaves, such as the homes of the Batak and the tongkonan of Toraja, are often bigger than the house they shelter. The fronts of Torajan houses are frequently decorated with buffalo horns, stacked one above another, as an indication of status. The outside walls also frequently feature decorative reliefs.
Candi is an Indonesian term to refer to ancient temples. Before the rise of Islam, between the 5th to 15th-century Dharmic faiths (Hinduism and Buddhism) were the majority in the Indonesian archipelago, especially in Java and Sumatra. As a result of numerous Hindu temples, locally known as candi, constructed and dominated the landscape of Java. According to local beliefs, Java valley had thousands of Hindu temples that co-existed with Buddhist temples, most of which were buried in the massive eruption of Mount Merapi in 1006 AD.
Between 1100 and 1500 additional Hindu temples were built, but abandoned by Hindus and Buddhists as Islam spread in Java circa the 15th to 16th century. The 8th-century Borobudur temple near Yogyakarta is the largest Buddhist temple in the world and is notable for incorporating about 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues into its structure, telling the story of the life of the Buddha. As the visitor ascends through the eight levels of the temple, the story unfolds, the final three levels simply containing stupas and statues of the Buddha. The building is said to incorporate a map of the Buddhist cosmos and is a masterful fusion of didactic narrative relief, spiritual symbolism, monumental design and the serene meditative environs. The whole monument itself resembles a giant stupa, but seen from above it forms a mandala.[58]
The nearby 9th-century temple complex at Prambanan contains some of the best-preserved examples of Hindu temple architecture in Java. The temple complex comprises eight main shrines, surrounded by 224 smaller shrines. The majority of Hindu temples in Java were dedicated to Shiva, who Javanese Hindus considered as the God who commands the energy to destroy, recombine and recreate the cycle of life. Small temples were often dedicated to Shiva and his family (wife Durga, son Ganesha). Larger temple complexes include temples for Vishnu and Brahma, but the most majestic, sophisticated and central temple was dedicated to Shiva.
Indonesia is considered as home of world handicraft.[59] Every ethnic group has its own uniqueness, style, and philosophy of crafting.[59] Most of them are made from wooden, bone, fabric, stone, and paper. These natural materials were crafted using hands into profitable and aesthetic items.[59] Handicraft manufacturing serves not only as an important economic sector, but also a tradition and has a social function as well.[60] The handicraft industry employs thousands of people in towns and villages across the country. About half a billion dollar worth of handicraft is exported every year, and many more is consumed domestically.[59][60]
There are many varieties of handicraft from other regions.[59]West Sumatra and South Sumatra are particularly noted for their songket cloths.[61] Villages in the Lesser Sunda Islands produce ikat while provinces in Kalimantan are long known for their basketry and weaving using rattan and other natural fabrics.[62] Wood art produced by the Asmat people of Papua is highly valued.[63] Cities along Java's northern coast, Cirebon, Pekalongan, and Rembang are known as centres of batik.[64] Cirebon and Jepara are important cities in furniture, producing rattan and carved wood respectively,[65] while Tasikmalaya is known for embroidery.[66]Pasuruan also produces furniture and other products and support stores and galleries in Bali.[59]Bandung and Surabaya, both modern, cosmopolitan, and industrialised cities—much like Jakarta but on a lesser scale—are creative cities with a variety of innovative startups.[59]
A traditional tailor (Tenun) from Sumatra, in the process of sewing
Several Indonesian islands are famous for their batik, ikat and songket cloth. Once on the brink of disappearing, batik and later ikat, found a new lease on life when former President Suharto promoted wearing batik shirts on official occasions. In addition to the traditional patterns with their special meanings, used for particular occasions, batik designs have become creative and diverse over the last few years.
Formal family portrait of former Indonesian's President B.J. Habibie. Women wear kain batik and kebaya with selendang (sash), while men wear jas and dasi (western suit with tie) with peci cap.
Indonesia's best-known national costumes are Batik and kebaya, although initially these costumes originated mainly from Javanese and Balinese culture, which are most prominent in Javanese, Sundanese and Balinese cultures. Because Java has become the political centre and population of Indonesia, the island's folk costume has been raised to national status. As a plural country, Indonesia has 38 provinces, each of which has representatives of traditional clothing from each province with unique and different designs. National costumes are worn at official occasions and traditional ceremonies. each province in Indonesia – more complete each group in Indonesia, has its own traditional costumes. The costumes of this area are in Indonesian called Pakaian tradisional or Pakaian adat, and are taken from traditional Indonesian textile traditions and crafts.
Batik is a cloth that is traditionally made using a manual wax-resist dyeing technique to form intricate patterns. Traditionally batik cloth is a large piece of intricately decorated cloth used by Javanese women as kemben or torso wrap. Batik cloth was wrapped around the hips with multiple folds in front called wiron, while the upper torso wear kebaya fitted dress. Traditionally for men, the edge of batik cloth also can be sewn together to make a tubular cloth as sarong, or wrapped around hips as kain in a fashion similar to women's. Later for men, the batik cloth also is sewn and made into contemporary batik men's shirt. Today, Batik shirts, which are commonly worn by men in Indonesia (especially in Java), are usually worn during formal occasions; such as attending weddings, traditional ceremonies, formal meetings, communal gatherings, etc. Batik is recognized as one of the important identity of Indonesian culture. UNESCO designated Indonesian batik as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on 2 October 2009.[71]
Kebaya
The kebaya is the national costume of women from Indonesia, although it is more accurately endemic to the Javanese, Sundanese and Balinese peoples. It is sometimes made from sheer material such as silk, thin cotton or semi-transparent nylon or polyester, adorned with brocade or floral pattern embroidery. Kebaya usually worn with a sarong or batik kain panjang, or other traditional woven garment such as ikat, songket with a colorful motif. Kebaya is usually worn during official national events by Indonesian first lady, wives of Indonesian diplomats, and Indonesian ladies. It also worn by Indonesian ladies attending traditional ceremonies and weddings. During Balinese traditional ceremonies, Balinese women wore colorful Balinese style kebaya with songket Bali.
Peci
The Peci, also known as songkok or kopiah, is a cap traditionally worn by male Muslims in the Indonesian archipelago. It is quite similar to the Turkish-Egyptian fez. In Indonesia, the black velvet peci has become the national headdress with nationalist connotations made popular by Sukarno.[72] A number of Indonesian nationalist movement activists in the early 20th century, wore a peci to convey their nationalistic sentiments and to demonstrate their Indonesian identity. Indonesian male presidents always wear a peci as part of their official presidential attire. Since then, the black velvet peci is approved to be the national head-dress for Indonesian men. It is worn all over Indonesia, especially by government officials and men (usually Muslim men) throughout the country. The peci is usually worn with a batik shirt or western-style suits by men in Indonesia for those attending formal occasions.
In 2011 an online poll by 35,000 people held by CNN International chose Rendang as the number one dish of their 'World's 50 Most Delicious Foods' list.
The cuisine of indonesia has been influenced by Chinese culture and Indian culture, as well as by Western culture. However, in return, Indonesian cuisine has also contributed to the cuisines of neighbouring countries, notably Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei, where Padang or Minangkabau cuisine from West Sumatra is very popular. Also, Satay (Sate in Indonesian), which originated from Java, Madura, and Sumatra, has gained popularity as a street vendor food from Singapore to Thailand. In the 15th century, both the Portuguese and Arab traders arrived in Indonesia with the intention of trading for pepper and other spices. During the colonial era, immigrants from many countries arrived in Indonesia and brought different cultures as well as cuisines.
Tempe, is an Indonesian fermented food made from soybeans
Indonesian dishes are usually spicy, using a wide range of chilli peppers and spices. The most popular dishes include nasi goreng (fried rice), Satay, Nasi Padang (a dish of Minangkabau) and soy-based dishes, such as tahu and tempe. A unique characteristic of some Indonesian food is the application of spicy peanut sauce in their dishes, as a dressing for Gado-gado or Karedok (Indonesian style salad), or for seasoning grilled chicken satay. Another unique aspect of Indonesian cuisine is using terasi or belacan, a pungent shrimp paste in dishes of sambal oelek (hot pungent chilli sauce). The sprinkling of fried shallots also gives a uniquely crisp texture to some Indonesian dishes.
Chinese and Indian cultures have influenced the serving of food and the types of spices used. It is very common to find Chinese food in Indonesia such as dimsum and noodles, and Indian cuisine such as Tandoori chicken. In addition, Western culture has significantly contributed to the extensive range of dishes. However, the dishes have been transformed to suit Indonesian tastes. For example, steaks are usually served with rice. Popular fast foods such as Kentucky Fried Chicken are served with rice instead of bread and sambal (spicy sauce) instead of ketchup. Some Indonesian foods have been adopted by the Dutch, like Indonesian rice table or 'rijsttafel'.
Sate, a popular Indonesian dish featuring skewered and grilled meat, served with a savory peanut sauce. Originating from Java, its popularity has increased across Southeast Asia.
Soto, a traditional soup made with rich broth, tender meat, and fresh vegetables, often served with rice and various toppings.
Gado-gado, A traditional Indonesian salad with a mix of fresh vegetables, tofu, and tempeh, all topped with peanut sauce.
The mythology of Indonesia is very diverse, the Indonesian people consisting of hundreds of ethnic groups, each with their own myths and legends. The stories within this system of lore often incorporate supernatural entities and magical creatures which form parts of Indonesian mythology. Others relate to creation myths and place naming legends that are often intertwined with historical figures and events. Ancient rituals for healing and traditional medicine as well as complex philosophies regarding health and disease can also be found.
Hindu-Buddhist mythical beings have a role in Javanese and Balinese mythology, including Hindu gods and heroes, devatas, asuras, apsaras (known as hapsari or bidadari), kinnaras, etc., while native gods of nature such as Semar, Dewi Sri, and Nyai Loro Kidul are either given identified as their Hindu counterpart or incorporated into a Java-Bali Hindu pantheon unknown in India. For example, native rice goddess Dewi Sri is identified with Lakshmi the shakti of Vishnu, and Semar and his sons the Punakawans are incorporated into the epic of Mahabharata in Javanese wayang kulit, as the clown servants of the Pandawas. Several names refer to gods, such as Dewa (devas), Dewi (devi), dewata (devatas), and in native traditions usually referred to as Batara (male god) and Batari (female goddess).
After the coming of Islam to the Indonesian archipelago, Islamic mythology especially those dealing with spiritual beings, such as devils, demons, jinns and angels entered Indonesian mythology. In Sumatra, Malay, Aceh and Minangkabau mythology was almost entirely supplanted by Islamic mythology. However, belief in local spirits such as the forest guardian, the ghost of water or haunted places still exists, often associated with a jinn or the tormented soul of a deceased human.
Early Indonesian literature originates in Malay literature, and the influence of these roots was felt until well into the twentieth century. The phrase "Indonesian literature" refers to Indonesian as written in the nation of Indonesia, but also covers literature written in an earlier form of the language, i.e. the Malay language written in the Dutch East Indies. Pramoedya Ananta Toer was Indonesia's most internationally celebrated author, having won the Magsaysay Award as well as being considered for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Other important figures include the late Chairil Anwar, a poet and member of the "Generation 45" group of authors who were active in the Indonesian independence movement. Tight information controls during Suharto's presidency suppressed new writing, especially because of its ability to agitate for social reform.
In the book Max Havelaar, Dutch author Multatuli criticised the Dutch treatment of the Indonesians, which gained him international attention.
Poetry has a long tradition in Indonesia, particularly among ethnically Malay populations, of extemporary, interactive, oral composition of poetry. These poems are referred to as pantun. Contemporary Indonesian poets include among others, Sutardji Calzoum Bachri, Rendra, Taufiq Ismail, Afrizal Malna, Binhad Nurrohmat, Joko Pinurbo, Nyoman Tusthi Eddy, and Sapardi Djoko Damono. In written poetry and prose, a number of traditional forms dominate, mainly: syair (traditional narrative poetry), gurindam (brief aphorisms), hikayat (stories, fairy-tales, animal fables, chronicles), babad (histories or chronicles).
Taufik Hidayat, 2004 Olympic gold medalist in badminton men's singles.
Many traditional games are still preserved and popular in Indonesia, although western culture has influenced some parts of them. Among three hundred officially recognised Indonesian cultures, there are many kinds of traditional games: cockfighting in Bali, annual bull races in Madura, horse racing in Sumbawa and stone jumping in Nias. Stone jumping involves leaping over a stone wall about up to 1.5m high and was originally used to train warriors. Pencak Silat is another popular form of sport, which was influenced by Asian culture as a whole. Another form of national sport is sepak takraw.[74] The rules are similar to volleyball: to keep the rattan ball in the air with the players' feet.
Popular modern sports in Indonesia played at the international level include football (soccer), badminton and basketball.[75] Badminton is one of Indonesia's most successful sports. Indonesian badminton athletes have played in Indonesia Open Badminton Championship, All England Open Badminton Championships, and many international events, including the Summer Olympics and won Olympic gold medals since badminton was made an Olympic sport in 1992. Rudy Hartono is a legendary Indonesian badminton player, who won All England titles seven times in a row (1968 through 1974). Indonesian teams have won the Thomas Cup (men's world team championship) thirteen of the twenty-two times that it has been contested since they entered the series in 1957.[76] In the internationally popular sport of football (soccer), Indonesian teams have been active in the Asian Football Confederation (AFC).
Sporting events in Indonesia are organised by the National Sports Committee of Indonesia (KONI). The committee, along with the government of Indonesia, has set a National Sports Day every 9 September with "Sports for All" as the motto. Indonesia has hosted the Southeast Asian Games four times, in 1979, 1987, 1997 and 2011, and won the overall champion title in each of these years. As of 2011, Indonesia has won champion titles 10 times overall out of 18 SEA Games it has attended since debuted in 1977. The country also hosted the 1993 Asian Basketball Championship.[77] Besides that, it has also hosted the Asian Games twice, the 1962 Asian Games and the 2018 Asian Games.
The largest chain of cinemas in Indonesia is 21 Cineplex, which has cinemas spread throughout twenty-four cities on the major islands of Indonesia. Many smaller independent cinemas also exist.
The public radio network Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI) was founded in 1945. It consists of a network of regional stations located in all provinces of the archipelago. In most cities and large towns there are also many commercial stations. Since 2006, several digital radio stations have been based in Jakarta and Surabaya, using Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and Hybrid HD-Radio.[84][85][86]
Islam is Indonesia's main religion, with almost 88% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census,[87] making Indonesia the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world. The remaining population is 9% Christian (of which roughly two-thirds are Protestant with the remainder mainly Catholic, and a large minority Charismatic), 2% Hindu, and 1% Buddhist.
The Pancasila, the statement of two principles that encapsulate the ideology of the Indonesian state, affirms that "The state shall be based on the belief in the one and only God".
Some Indonesian ritual worship
Maudu Lompoa tradition in Sulawesi, to commemorate the birthday of Muhammad
Christmas in Papua is marked with Barapen (grilling stone)
Date varies; this is the Friday before Easter Sunday, which is the first Sunday after the first Paschal Full Moon following the official vernal equinox
In Indonesia it is celebrated as Trisuci Waisak, to commemorate three important events in Buddhism; Buddha's birthday, enlightenment and his death. The date varies according to the Buddhist calendar
Gamelan is the traditional ensemble music of the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese peoples of Indonesia, made up predominantly of percussive instruments. The most common instruments used are metallophones and a set of hand-drums called kendang, which keep the beat. The kemanak, a banana-shaped idiophone, and the gangsa, another metallophone, are also commonly used gamelan instruments on Bali. Other notable instruments include xylophones, bamboo flutes, a bowed string instrument called a rebab, and a zither-like instrument called a siter, used in Javanese gamelan. Additionally, vocalists may be featured, being referred to as sindhen for females or gerong for males.
Wayang is a traditional form of puppet theatre play originating from the Indonesian island of Java. Wayang refers to the entire dramatic show. Sometimes the leather puppet itself is referred to as wayang. Performances of wayang puppet theatre are accompanied by a gamelan orchestra in Java, and by gender wayang in Bali. The dramatic stories depict mythologies, such as episodes from the Hindu epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, as well as local adaptations of cultural legends. Traditionally, a wayang is played out in a ritualized midnight-to-dawn show by a dalang, an artist and spiritual leader; people watch the show from both sides of the screen.
Hinduism is the third-largest religion in Indonesia, based on civil registration data in 2023 from Ministry of Home Affairs, is practised by about 1.68% of the total population, and almost 87% of the population in Bali. Hinduism was the dominant religion in the country before the arrival of Islam and is one of the six official religions of Indonesia today. Hinduism came to Indonesia in the 1st-century through Indian traders, sailors, scholars and priests. A syncretic fusion of pre-existing Javanese folk religion, culture and Hindu ideas, that from the 6th-century also synthesized Buddhist ideas as well, evolved as the Indonesian version of Hinduism. These ideas continued to develop during the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires. About 1400 CE, these kingdoms were introduced to Islam from coast-based Muslim traders, and thereafter Hinduism, which was previously the dominant religion in the region, mostly vanished from many of the islands of Indonesia.
Topeng is a dramatic form of Indonesian dance in which one or more mask-wearing ornately costumed performers interpret traditional narratives concerning fabled kings, heroes, and myths, accompanied by gamelan or other traditional music instruments. Topeng dance is a typical Indonesian dance that can be found in various regions of Indonesia. Topeng dance has the main characteristic that the dancers use masks to cover their faces. The dance will usually be performed by one dancer or a group of dancers.
Pencak silat is an umbrella term for a class of related Indonesian martial arts. In neighbouring countries, the term usually refers to professional competitive silat. It is a full-body fighting form incorporating strikes, grappling, and throwing, in addition to weaponry. Every part of the body is used and subject to attack. Pencak silat was practiced not only for physical defense but also for psychological ends. There are hundreds of different pencak silat styles and schools which tend to focus either on strikes, joint manipulation, weaponry, or some combination thereof.
Songket or sungkit is a tenun fabric that belongs to the brocade family of textiles of Brunei, Indonesia, and Malaysia. It is hand-woven in silk or cotton, and intricately patterned with gold or silver threads. The metallic threads stand out against the background cloth to create a shimmering effect. In the weaving process the metallic threads are inserted in between the silk or cotton weft (latitudinal) threads in a technique called supplementary weft weaving technique.
Talempong is a traditional musical instrument of the Minangkabau people of Western Sumatra, Indonesia. The talempong produce a static texture consisting of interlocking rhythms.
The architecture of Indonesia reflects the diversity of cultural, historical, and geographic influences that have shaped Indonesia as a whole. Invaders, colonizers, missionaries, merchants, and traders brought cultural changes that had a profound effect on building styles and techniques.
Javanese culture is the culture of the Javanese people. Javanese culture is centered in the provinces of Central Java, Yogyakarta and East Java in Indonesia. Due to various migrations, it can also be found in other parts of the world, such as Suriname, the broader Indonesian archipelago region, Cape Malay, Malaysia, Singapore, Netherlands and other countries. The migrants bring with them various aspects of Javanese cultures such as Gamelan music, traditional dances and art of Wayang kulit shadow play.
Balinese dance is an ancient dance tradition that is part of the religious and artistic expression among the Balinese people of Bali island, Indonesia. Balinese dance is dynamic, angular, and intensely expressive. Balinese dancers express the stories of dance-drama through bodily gestures including gestures of fingers, hands, head, and eyes.
Dance in Indonesia reflects the country's diversity of ethnicities and cultures. There are more than 1,300 ethnic groups in Indonesia. Austronesian roots and Melanesian tribal forms are visible, and influences ranging from neighboring Asian and even western styles through colonization. Each ethnic group has its own dances: there are more than 3,000 original dance forms in Indonesia. The old traditions of dance and drama are being preserved in the numerous dance schools which flourish not only in the courts but also in the modern, government-run or supervised art academies.
Sembah is an Indonesian greeting and gesture of respect and reverence. While performing the sembah, one clasps their palms together solemnly in a prayer-like fashion called suhun or susuhun in Javanese; or menyusun jari sepuluh in Indonesian and Malay, placing them in front of their chest and moving the pressed palms up to their chin, or all the way up until their thumbs touch the tip of their nose, while bowing slightly. Any of these two forms are made depending on the status of the person greeted.
The national costume of Indonesia is the national attire that represents the Republic of Indonesia. It is derived from Indonesian culture and Indonesian traditional textile traditions. Today the most widely recognized Indonesian national attires include batik and kebaya, although originally those attires mainly belong within the island of Java and Bali, most prominently within Javanese, Sundanese and Balinese culture. Since Java has been the political and population center of Indonesia, folk attire from the island has become elevated into national status.
Javanisation or Javanization is the process in which Javanese culture dominates, assimilates, or influences other cultures in general. The term "Javanise" means "to make or to become Javanese in form, idiom, style, or character". This domination could take place in various aspects; such as cultural, language, politics and social.
Wayang kulit is a traditional form of shadow puppetry originally found in the cultures of Java and Bali in Indonesia. In a wayang kulit performance, the puppet figures are rear-projected on a taut linen screen with a coconut oil light. The dalang manipulates carved leather figures between the lamp and the screen to bring the shadows to life. The narratives of wayang kulit often have to do with the major theme of good vs. evil.
It is quite difficult to define Indonesian art, since the country is immensely diverse. The sprawling archipelago nation consists of 17,000 islands. Around 922 of those permanently inhabited, by over 1,300 ethnic groups, which speak more than 700 living languages.
Indonesian theatre is a type of art in the form of drama performances that are staged on a stage, with a distinct Indonesian nuance or background. In general, theatre is an art that emphasizes the performing arts that are displayed in front of a large crowd. In other words, theater is a form of visualisation of a drama that is staged on the stage and watched by the audience. Indonesian theatre includes the performing arts of traditional theater and modern theatre located in the territory of Indonesia. Some examples of Indonesian theater are Arja, Wayang, Wayang wong, Lenong, Ludruk, Janger, Randai and others. Theatre in Indonesia can also be referred to as regional or ethnic theatre, because it originates and develops from 1,300 ethnic cultures in Indonesia.
Batik plays multiple roles in the culture of Indonesia. The wax resist-dyeing technique has been used for centuries in Java, and has been adopted in varying forms in other parts of the country. Java is home to several batik museums.
↑ "Sape, Alat Musik Kalimantan Mampu Berkolaborasi Dengan Musik Moderen"[Sape: The Traditional Musical Instrument of Kalimantan Now Collaborated With Modern Musics] (in Indonesian). Dinas Komunikasi dan Informatika Provinsi Kalimantan Timur [Official Communication and Information Agency of East Kalimantan]. 2021. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
↑ "Sapeq Kalimantan Timur, Salah Satu Alat Musik Tradisional Dayak"[Sapeq: One of East Kalimantan's Traditional Musical Instruments of Dayak] (in Indonesian). Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Diplomacy, Directorate General of Culture of the Republic of Indonesia. 2019. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
↑ Browne, Susan J. (2000). The gender implications of dangdut kampungan: Indonesian "low class" popular music. Monash Asia Institute. ISBN0-7326-1190-3.
↑ Michel Picard (April 1990). "'Cultural Tourism' in Bali: Cultural Performances as Tourist Attraction, Indonesia" (Vol. 49ed.). Southeast Asia Program Publications, Cornell University: 37–74.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
↑ M. Aubert et al., "Pleistocene cave art from Sulawesi, Indonesia", Nature volume 514, pages 223–227 (9 October 2014). "using uranium-series dating of coralloid speleothems directly associated with 12 human hand stencils and two figurative animal depictions from seven cave sites in the Maros karsts of Sulawesi, we show that rock art traditions on this Indonesian island are at least compatible in age with the oldest European art. The earliest dated image from Maros, with a minimum age of 39.9 kyr, is now the oldest known hand stencil in the world. In addition, a painting of a babirusa ('pig deer) made at least 35.4 kyr ago is among the earliest dated figurative depictions worldwide, if not the earliest one. Among the implications, it can now be demonstrated that humans were producing rock art by ~40 kyr ago at opposite ends of the Pleistocene Eurasian world."
Kuncaraningrat. (1985) Javanese culture Singapore: Oxford University Press,
Kathleen M. Adams (2006). Art as Politics: Re-crafting Identities, Tourism and Power in Tana Toraja, Indonesia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN978-0-8248-3072-4.
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