Rice

Last updated

Rice plant (Oryza sativa) with branched panicles containing many grains on each stem 20201102.Hengnan.Hybrid rice Sanyou-1.6.jpg
Rice plant ( Oryza sativa ) with branched panicles containing many grains on each stem
Rice grains of different varieties at the International Rice Research Institute Rice grains (IRRI).jpg
Rice grains of different varieties at the International Rice Research Institute

Rice is a cereal grain, and in its domesticated form is the staple food for over half of the world's human population, particularly in Asia and Africa, due to the vast amount of soil that is able to grow rice. Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or, much less commonly, O. glaberrima (African rice). Asian rice was domesticated in China some 13,500 to 8,200 years ago, while African rice was domesticated in Africa some 3,000 years ago. Rice has become commonplace in many cultures worldwide; in 2021, 787 million tons were produced, placing it fourth after sugarcane, maize, and wheat. Only some 8% of rice is traded internationally. China, India, and Indonesia are the largest consumers of rice. A substantial amount of the rice produced in developing nations is lost after harvest through factors such as poor transport and storage. Rice yields can be reduced by pests including insects, rodents, and birds, as well as by weeds, and by diseases such as rice blast. Traditional polycultures such as rice-duck farming, and modern integrated pest management seek to control damage from pests in a sustainable way.

Contents

Many varieties of rice have been bred to improve crop quality and productivity. Biotechnology has created Green Revolution rice able to produce high yields when supplied with nitrogen fertilizer and managed intensively. Other products are rice able to express human proteins for medicinal use; flood-tolerant or deepwater rice; and drought-tolerant and salt-tolerant varieties. Rice is used as a model organism in biology.

Dry rice grain is milled to remove the outer layers; depending on how much is removed, products range from brown rice to rice with germ and white rice. Some is parboiled to make it easy to cook. Rice contains no gluten; it provides protein but not all the essential amino acids needed for good health. Rice of different types is eaten around the world. Long-grain rice tends to stay intact on cooking; medium-grain rice is stickier, and is used for sweet dishes, and in Italy for risotto; and sticky short-grain rice is used in Japanese sushi as it keeps its shape when cooked. White rice when cooked contains 29% carbohydrate and 2% protein, with some manganese. Golden rice is a variety produced by genetic engineering to contain vitamin A.

Production of rice is estimated to have caused over 1% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2022. Rice yields are predicted to fall by some 20% with each 1°C rise in global mean temperature. In human culture, rice plays a role in certain religions and traditions, such as in weddings.

Description

The rice plant can grow to over 1 m (3 ft) tall; if in deep water, it can reach a length of 5 m (16 ft). A single plant may have several leafy stems or tillers. The upright stem is jointed with nodes along its length; a long slender leaf arises from each node. [1] The self-fertile flowers are produced in a panicle, a branched inflorescence which arises from the last internode on the stem. There can be up to 350 spikelets in a panicle, each containing male and female flower parts (anthers and ovule). A fertilised ovule develops into the edible grain or caryopsis. [2]

Rice is a cereal belonging to the family Poaceae. As a tropical crop, it can be grown during the two distinct seasons (dry and wet) of the year provided that sufficient water is made available. [3] It is normally an annual, but in the tropics it can survive as a perennial, producing a ratoon crop. [4]

Agronomy

Growing

Like all crops, rice depends for its growth on both biotic and abiotic environmental factors. The principal biotic factors are crop variety, pests, and plant diseases. Abiotic factors include the soil type, whether lowland or upland, amount of rain or irrigation water, temperature, day length, and intensity of sunlight. [5]

Rice grains can be planted directly into the field where they will grow, or seedlings can be grown in a seedbed and transplanted into the field. Direct seeding needs some 60 to 80 kg of grain per hectare, while transplanting needs less, around 40 kg per hectare, but requires far more labour. [6] Most rice in Asia is transplanted by hand. Mechanical transplanting takes less time but requires a carefully-prepared field and seedlings raised on mats or in trays to fit the machine. [7] Rice does not thrive if continuously submerged. [8] Rice can be grown in different environments, depending upon water availability. The usual arrangement is for lowland fields to be surrounded by bunds and flooded to a depth of a few centimetres until around a week before harvest time; this requires a large amount of water. The "alternate wetting and drying" technique uses less water. One form of this is to flood the field to a depth of 5 cm (2 in), then to let the water level drop to 15 cm (6 in) below surface level, as measured by looking into a perforated field water tube sunk into the soil, and then repeating the cycle. [9] Deepwater rice varieties tolerate flooding to a depth of over 50 centimetres for at least a month. [10] Upland rice is grown without flooding, in hilly or mountainous regions; it is rainfed like wheat or maize. [11]

Harvesting

Across Asia, unmilled rice or "paddy" (Indonesian and Malay padi), was traditionally the product of smallholder agriculture, with manual harvesting. Larger farms make use of machines such as combine harvesters to reduce the input of labour. [12] The grain is ready to harvest when the moisture content is 20–25%. Harvesting involves reaping, stacking the cut stalks, threshing to separate the grain, and cleaning by winnowing or screening. [13] The rice grain is dried as soon as possible to bring the moisture content down to a level that is safe from mould fungi. Traditional drying relies on the heat of the sun, with the grain spread out on mats or on pavements. [14]

Evolution

Phylogeny

The edible rice species are members of the BOP clade within the grass family, the Poaceae. The rice subfamily, Oryzoideae, is sister to the bamboos, Bambusoideae, and the cereal subfamily Pooideae. The rice genus Oryza is one of eleven in the Oryzeae; it is sister to the Phyllorachideae. The edible rice species O. sativa and O. glaberrima are among some 300 species or subspecies in the genus. [15]

Poaceae

other grasses

PACMAD clade

(inc. the C4 grasses, maize, sorghum)

BOP clade
Oryzoideae

Streptogyneae

Ehrharteae

Phyllorachideae

Oryzeae

Wild rices inc. Zizania

Oryza

other rice species and subspecies

O. sativa (Asian rice)

O. glaberrima (African rice)

Bambusoideae (bamboos)

Pooideae (grasses and cereals inc. wheat, barley)

History

Bas-relief of 9th century Borobudur in Indonesia describes rice barns and rice plants infested by mice. KITLV 40091 - Kassian Cephas - Relief of the hidden base of Borobudur - 1890-1891.jpg
Bas-relief of 9th century Borobudur in Indonesia describes rice barns and rice plants infested by mice.

Oryza sativa rice was first domesticated in the Yangtze River basin in China 13,500 to 8,200 years ago. [16] The functional allele for nonshattering, the critical indicator of domestication in grains, as well as five other single-nucleotide polymorphisms, is identical in both indica and japonica . This implies a single domestication event for O. sativa. [17] Both indica and japonica forms of Asian rice sprang from a single domestication event in China from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon . [16] [17] Despite this evidence, it appears that indica rice arose when japonica arrived in India about 4,500 years ago and hybridised with another rice, whether an undomesticated proto-indica or wild O. nivara . [18] Further, rice grains with signs of having been cut have been found alongside stone tools dated to 17,300 years ago at Sorori in Korea. This implies domestication in progress, far from the Yangtze River basin, at an earlier date. [19]

Cultivation, migration and trade spread rice around the world—first to much of east Asia, then further abroad, and eventually to the Americas as part of the Columbian exchange after 1492. [20] The now less common Oryza glaberrima (African rice) was independently domesticated in Africa around 3,000 years ago, [20] and introduced to the Americas by the Spanish. [21]

Commerce

Rice production – 2021
Country Millions of tonnes
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg  China 213
Flag of India.svg  India 195
Flag of Bangladesh.svg  Bangladesh 57
Flag of Indonesia.svg  Indonesia 54
Flag of Vietnam.svg  Vietnam 44
Flag of Thailand.svg  Thailand 30
World787 [22]

Production

In 2021, world production of rice was 787 million tonnes, led by China and India with a combined 52% of the total. [22] This placed rice fourth in the list of crops by production, after sugarcane, maize, and wheat. [23] Other major producers were Bangladesh, Indonesia and Vietnam. [23] 90% of world production is from Asia. [24]

Yield records

The average world yield for rice was 4.7 metric tons per hectare (2.1 short tons per acre), in 2022. [25] Yuan Longping of China's National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center set a world record for rice yield in 1999 at 17.1 metric tons per hectare (7.6 short tons per acre) on a demonstration plot. This employed specially developed hybrid rice and the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), an innovation in rice farming. [26]

Food security

Rice is a major food staple in Asia, Latin America, and some parts of Africa, [27] feeding over half the world's population. [24] However, a substantial part of the crop can be lost post-harvest through inefficient transportation, storage, and milling. A quarter of the crop in Nigeria is lost after harvest. Storage losses include damage by mould fungi if the rice is not dried sufficiently. In China, losses in modern metal silos were just 0.2%, compared to 7–13% when rice was stored by rural households. [28]

Processing

The dry grain is milled to remove the outer layers, namely the husk and bran. These can be removed in a single step, in two steps, or as in commercial milling in a multi-step process of cleaning, dehusking, separation, polishing, grading, and weighing. [29] Brown rice only has the inedible husk removed. [30] Further milling removes bran and the germ to create successively whiter products. [30] Parboiled rice is subjected to a steaming process before it is milled. This makes the grain harder, and moves some of the grain's vitamins and minerals into the white part of the rice so these are retained after milling. [30] Rice does not contain gluten, so is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet. [31] Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein as it does not contain all of the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health. [32]

Trade

World trade figures are much smaller than those for production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded internationally. China, an exporter of rice in the early 2000s, had become the world's largest importer of rice by 2013. [33] Developing countries are the main players in the world rice trade; by 2012, India was the largest exporter of rice, with Thailand and Vietnam the other largest exporters. [34]

Worldwide consumption

As of 2016, the countries that consumed the most rice were China (29% of total), India, and Indonesia. [35] By 2020, Bangladesh had taken third place from Indonesia. On an annual average from 2020-23, China consumed 154 million tonnes of rice, India consumed 109 million tonnes, and Bangladesh and Indonesia consumed about 36 million tonnes each. Across the world, rice consumption per capita fell in the 21st century as people in Asia and elsewhere ate less grain and more meat. An exception is Sub-Saharan Africa, where both per capita consumption of rice and population are increasing. [36]

Food

Cooked white rice, medium-grain, unenriched
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 544 kJ (130 kcal)
28.6 g
Fat
0.2 g
2.4 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV
Thiamine (B1)
2%
0.02 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
2%
0.02 mg
Niacin (B3)
3%
0.4 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
8%
0.41 mg
Vitamin B6
4%
0.05 mg
Folate (B9)
1%
2 μg
Minerals Quantity
%DV
Calcium
0%
3 mg
Iron
2%
0.2 mg
Magnesium
4%
13 mg
Manganese
18%
0.38 mg
Phosphorus
5%
37 mg
Potassium
1%
29 mg
Sodium
0%
0 mg
Zinc
4%
0.4 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water69 g

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.

Eating qualities

Rice is commonly consumed as food around the world. The varieties of rice are typically classified as short-, medium-, and long-grained. Short-grain rices include Italian Arborio rice for risotto. Medium-grain rices include Japanese sushi rice, which is slightly sticky. Long-grain rices include South Asian Basmati, with a nutty flavour, and Thai Jasmine rice with a flowery aroma and soft texture. [37]

Nutrition

Cooked white rice is 69% water, 29% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a reference serving of 100 grams (3.5 oz), cooked white rice provides 130 calories of food energy, and contains moderate levels of manganese (18% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (all less than 10% of the Daily Value). [38] In 2018, the World Health Organization strongly recommended fortifying rice with iron, and conditionally recommended fortifying it with vitamin A and with folic acid. [39]

Golden rice

Golden rice is a variety produced through genetic engineering to synthesize beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, in the endosperm of the rice grain. It is intended to be grown and eaten in parts of the world where Vitamin A deficiency is prevalent. [40] [41] Golden rice has been opposed by activists, such as in the Philippines. [42] In 2016 more than 100 Nobel laureates encouraged the use of genetically modified organisms, such as golden rice, for the benefits these could bring. [43]

Rice and climate change


Greenhouse gases from rice

Scientists measure the greenhouse gas emissions of rice. NP Rice Emissions18 (5687953086).jpg
Scientists measure the greenhouse gas emissions of rice.

In 2022, greenhouse gas emissions from rice cultivation were estimated at 5.7 billion tonnes CO2eq, representing 1.2% of total emissions. [44] Within the agriculture sector, rice produces almost half the greenhouse gas emissions from croplands, [45] some 30% of agricultural methane emissions, and 11% of agricultural nitrous oxide emissions. [46] Methane is released from rice fields subject to long-term flooding, as this inhibits the soil from absorbing atmospheric oxygen, resulting in anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil. [47] Emissions can be limited by planting new varieties, not flooding continuously, and removing straw. [48]

Effect of global warming on rice

A 2010 study found that, as a result of rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during the later years of the 20th century, the rice yield, measured at over 200 farms in seven Asian countries, decreased by between 10% and 20%. This may be caused by increased night-time respiration. [49] [50] IRRI has predicted that Asian rice yields will fall by some 20% per 1°C rise in global mean temperature. Further, rice is unable to yield grain if the flowers experience a temperature of 35°C or more for over one hour, so the crop would be lost under these conditions. [51] [52]

Pests, weeds, and diseases

Pests and weeds

Chinese rice grasshopper (Oxya chinensis) Chinese rice grasshopper (Oxya chinensis).jpg
Chinese rice grasshopper ( Oxya chinensis )

Rice yield can be reduced by weed growth, and a wide variety of pests including insects, nematodes, rodents such as rats, snails, and birds. [53] Major rice insect pests include ants, armyworms, black bugs, cutworms, field crickets, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, mealybugs, and planthoppers. [54] High rates of nitrogen fertilizer application may worsen aphid outbreaks. [55] Weather conditions can contribute to pest outbreaks: rice gall midge outbreaks are worsened by high rainfall in the wet season, while thrips outbreaks are associated with drought. [56]

Diseases

Healthy rice (left) and rice with rice blast Rice blast.jpg
Healthy rice (left) and rice with rice blast

Rice blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea, is the most serious disease of growing rice. [57] It and bacterial leaf streak (caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae) are perennially the two worst rice diseases worldwide; they are both among the ten most important diseases of all crop plants. [58] Other major rice diseases include sheath blight (caused by Rhizoctonia solani ), false smut ( Ustilaginoidea virens ), and bacterial panicle blight ( Burkholderia glumae ). [58] Viral diseases include rice bunchy stunt, rice dwarf, rice tungro, and rice yellow mottle. [59]

Pest management

Crop protection scientists are developing sustainable techniques for managing rice pests. [60] Sustainable pest management is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance, landscape ecology, and hierarchies in a landscape—from biological to social. [61] Farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary. [62] Pesticides may actually induce resurgence of populations of rice pests such as planthoppers, both by destroying beneficial insects and by enhancing the pest's reproduction. [63] The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop in pest numbers. [64]

A farmer grazes his ducks in paddy fields, Central Java Penggembala Bebek.jpg
A farmer grazes his ducks in paddy fields, Central Java

Farmers in China, Indonesia and the Philippines have traditionally managed weeds and pests by the polycultural practice of raising ducks and sometimes fish in their rice paddies. These produce valuable additional crops, eat small pest animals, manure the rice, and in the case of ducks also control weeds. [65] [66]

Rice plants produce their own chemical defences to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as the herbicide 2,4-D, cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and thereby increase the plant's resistance to some types of pests. [67] Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid, appear to induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that make the plant more susceptible to certain pests. [68]

Plant breeders have created rice cultivars incorporating resistance to various insect pests. Conventional plant breeding of resistant varieties has been limited by challenges such as rearing insect pests for testing, and the great diversity and continuous evolution of pests. Resistance genes are being sought from wild species of rice, and genetic engineering techniques are being applied. [69]

Ecotypes and cultivars

Rice seed collection from IRRI Rice diversity.jpg
Rice seed collection from IRRI

The International Rice Research Institute maintains the International Rice Genebank, which holds over 100,000 rice varieties. [70] [71] Much of southeast Asia grows sticky or glutinous rice varieties. [72] High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in Africa, called the New Rice for Africa (NERICA), have been developed to improve food security and alleviate poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa. [73]

The complete genome of rice was sequenced in 2005, making it the first crop plant to reach this status. [74] Since then, the genomes of hundreds of types of rice, both wild and cultivated, and including both Asian and African rice species, have been sequenced. [75]

Biotechnology

High-yielding varieties

The high-yielding varieties are a group of crops created during the Green Revolution to increase global food production radically. The first Green Revolution rice variety, IR8, was produced in 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute through a cross between an Indonesian variety named "Peta" and a Chinese variety named "Dee Geo Woo Gen". [76] Green Revolution varieties were bred to have short strong stems so that the rice would not lodge or fall over. This enabled them to stay upright and productive even with heavy applications of fertilizer. [76]

Expression of human proteins

Ventria Bioscience has genetically modified rice to express lactoferrin and lysozyme which are proteins usually found in breast milk, and human serum albumin. These proteins have antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal effects. [77] Rice containing these added proteins can be used as a component in oral rehydration solutions to treat diarrheal diseases, thereby shortening their duration and reducing recurrence. Such supplements may also help reverse anemia. [78]

Flood-tolerant rice

International Rice Research Institute researchers checking deepwater rice in the Philippines Researchers checking deep water rice.jpg
International Rice Research Institute researchers checking deepwater rice in the Philippines

In areas subject to flooding, farmers have long planted flood tolerant varieties known as deepwater rice. In South and South East Asia, flooding affects some 20 million hectares (49 million acres) each year. [79] Flooding has historically led to massive losses in yields, such as in the Philippines, where in 2006, rice crops worth $65 million were lost to flooding. [80] Standard rice varieties cannot withstand stagnant flooding for more than about a week, since it disallows the plant access to necessary requirements such as sunlight and gas exchange. The Swarna Sub1 cultivar can tolerate week-long submergence, consuming carbohydrates efficiently and continuing to grow. [79]

Drought-tolerant rice

Drought represents a significant environmental stress for rice production, with 19–23 million hectares (47–57 million acres) of rainfed rice production in South and South East Asia often at risk. [81] [82] Under drought conditions, without sufficient water to afford them the ability to obtain the required levels of nutrients from the soil, conventional commercial rice varieties can be severely affected—as happened for example in India early in the 21st century. [83]

The International Rice Research Institute conducts research into developing drought-tolerant rice varieties, including the varieties Sahbhagi Dhan, Sahod Ulan, and Sookha dhan, currently being employed by farmers in India, the Philippines, and Nepal respectively. [82] In addition, in 2013 the Japanese National Institute for Agrobiological Sciences led a team which successfully inserted the DEEPER ROOTING 1 (DRO1) gene, from the Philippine upland rice variety Kinandang Patong, into the popular commercial rice variety IR64, giving rise to a far deeper root system in the resulting plants. [83] This facilitates an improved ability for the rice plant to derive its required nutrients in times of drought via accessing deeper layers of soil, a feature demonstrated by trials which saw the IR64 + DRO1 rice yields drop by 10% under moderate drought conditions, compared to 60% for the unmodified IR64 variety. [83] [84]

Salt-tolerant rice

Soil salinity poses a major threat to rice crop productivity, particularly along low-lying coastal areas during the dry season. [81] [85] For example, roughly 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres) of the coastal areas of Bangladesh are affected by saline soils. [86] These high concentrations of salt can severely affect rice plants' physiology, especially during early stages of growth, and as such farmers are often forced to abandon these areas. [87]

Progress has been made in developing rice varieties capable of tolerating such conditions; the hybrid created from the cross between the commercial rice variety IR56 and the wild rice species Oryza coarctata is one example. [88] O. coarctata can grow in soils with double the limit of salinity of normal varieties, but does not produce edible rice. [88] Developed by the International Rice Research Institute, the hybrid variety utilises specialised leaf glands that remove salt into the atmosphere. It was produced from one successful embryo out of 34,000 crosses between the two species; this was then backcrossed to IR56 with the aim of preserving the genes responsible for salt tolerance that were inherited from O. coarctata. [87]

Environment-friendly rice

Producing rice in paddies is harmful for the environment due to the release of methane by methanogenic bacteria. These bacteria live in the anaerobic waterlogged soil, consuming nutrients released by rice roots. Putting the barley gene SUSIBA2 into rice creates a shift in biomass production from root to shoot, decreasing the methanogen population, and resulting in a reduction of methane emissions of up to 97%. Further, the modification increases the amount of rice grains. [89] [90]

Model organism

Rice is used as a model organism for investigating the mechanisms of meiosis and DNA repair in higher plants. [91] For example, study using rice has shown that the gene OsRAD51C is necessary for the accurate repair of DNA double-strand breaks during meiosis. [92]

In human culture

Ancient statue of the rice goddess Dewi Sri from Java (c. 9th century) COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Beeld van Dewi Sri de rijstgodin TMnr 60016918.jpg
Ancient statue of the rice goddess Dewi Sri from Java (c.9th century)

Rice plays an important role in certain religions and popular beliefs. In Hindu wedding ceremonies, rice, denoting fertility, prosperity, and purity, is thrown into the sacred fire, a custom modified in Western weddings, where people throw rice. [93] In Malay weddings, rice features in multiple special wedding foods such as sweet glutinous rice. [94] In Japan and the Philippines, rice wine is used for weddings and other celebrations. [95] Dewi Sri is a goddess of the Indo-Malaysian archipelago, who in myth is transformed into rice or other crops. [96] The start of the rice planting season is marked in Asian countries including Nepal and Cambodia with a Royal Ploughing Ceremony. [97] [98] [99]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agriculture</span> Cultivation of plants and animals to provide useful products

Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, fisheries, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. While humans started gathering grains at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers only began planting them around 11,500 years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated around 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. In the 20th century, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monocultures came to dominate agricultural output.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cereal</span> Grass that has edible grain

A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize. Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat and quinoa are pseudocereals. Most cereals are annuals, producing one crop from each planting, though rice is sometimes grown as a perennial. Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in the autumn, becoming dormant in the winter, and harvested in spring or early summer; spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer. The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility, Ceres.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wheat</span> Genus of grass cultivated for the grain

Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus Triticum ; the most widely grown is common wheat. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BC. Botanically, the wheat kernel is a caryopsis, a type of fruit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Millet</span> Group of grasses (food grain)

Millets are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cowpea</span> Species of plant

The cowpea is an annual herbaceous legume from the genus Vigna. Its tolerance for sandy soil and low rainfall have made it an important crop in the semiarid regions across Africa and Asia. It requires very few inputs, as the plant's root nodules are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen, making it a valuable crop for resource-poor farmers and well-suited to intercropping with other crops. The whole plant is used as forage for animals, with its use as cattle feed likely responsible for its name.

<i>Oryza sativa</i> Species of plant

Oryza sativa, also known as rice, is the plant species most commonly referred to in English as rice. It is the type of farmed rice whose cultivars are most common globally, and was first domesticated in the Yangtze River basin in China 13,500 to 8,200 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New Rice for Africa</span> Group of hybrid rice

New Rice for Africa (NERICA) is a cultivar group of interspecific hybrid rice developed by the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) to improve the yield of African rice cultivars. Although 240 million people in West Africa rely on rice as the primary source of food energy and protein in their diet, the majority of this rice is imported. Self-sufficiency in rice production would improve food security and aid economic development in West Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pearl millet</span> Species of cultivated grass

Pearl millet is the most widely grown type of millet. It has been grown in Africa and the Indian subcontinent since prehistoric times. The center of diversity, and suggested area of domestication, for the crop is in the Sahel zone of West Africa. Recent archaeobotanical research has confirmed the presence of domesticated pearl millet on the Sahel zone of northern Mali between 2500 and 2000 BC. 2023 was the International Year of Millets, declared by the United Nations General Assembly in 2021.

<i>Sorghum bicolor</i> Species of plant

Sorghum bicolor, commonly called sorghum and also known as great millet, broomcorn, guinea corn, durra, imphee, jowar, or milo, is a grass species cultivated for its grain, which is used for food for humans, animal feed, and ethanol production. Sorghum originated in Africa, and is now cultivated widely in tropical and subtropical regions. Sorghum is the world's fifth-most important cereal crop after rice, wheat, maize, and barley, with 61,000,000 metric tons of annual global production in 2021. S. bicolor is typically an annual, but some cultivars are perennial. It grows in clumps that may reach over 4 metres (13 ft) high. The grain is small, ranging from 2 to 4 millimetres in diameter. Sweet sorghums are sorghum cultivars that are primarily grown for forage, syrup production, and ethanol; they are taller than those grown for grain.

<i>Oryza rufipogon</i> Species of grass

Oryza rufipogon, known as brownbeard rice, wild rice, and red rice, is a member of the genus Oryza.

<i>Paspalum scrobiculatum</i> Species of grass

Paspalum scrobiculatum, commonly called Kodo millet or Koda millet, is an annual grain that is grown primarily in Nepal and also in India, Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, and in West Africa from where it originated. It is grown as a minor crop in most of these areas, with the exception of the Deccan plateau in India where it is grown as a major food source. It is a very hardy crop that is drought tolerant and can survive on marginal soils where other crops may not survive, and can supply 450–900 kg of grain per hectare. Kodo millet has large potential to provide nourishing food to subsistence farmers in Africa and elsewhere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crop wild relative</span> Wild plant closely related to a domesticated plant

A crop wild relative (CWR) is a wild plant closely related to a domesticated plant. It may be a wild ancestor of the domesticated (cultivated) plant or another closely related taxon.

Upland rice is a variety of rice grown on dry soil rather than flooded rice paddies.

<i>Oryza glaberrima</i> African rice, second most common rice

Oryza glaberrima, commonly known as African rice, is one of the two domesticated rice species. It was first domesticated and grown in West Africa around 3,000 years ago. In agriculture, it has largely been replaced by higher-yielding Asian rice, and the number of varieties grown is declining. It still persists, making up an estimated 20% of rice grown in West Africa. It is now rarely sold in West African markets, having been replaced by Asian strains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maize</span> Genus of grass cultivated as a food crop

Maize, also known as corn in North American and Australian English, is a tall stout grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago from wild teosinte. Native Americans planted it alongside beans and squashes in the Three Sisters polyculture. The leafy stalk of the plant gives rise to male inflorescences or tassels which produce pollen, and female inflorescences called ears which yield grain, known as kernels or seeds. In modern varieties, these are usually yellow or white; other varieties can be of many colors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japonica rice</span> Variety of Asian rice

Japonica rice, sometimes called sinica rice, is one of the two major domestic types of Asian rice varieties. Japonica rice is extensively cultivated and consumed in East Asia, whereas in most other regions indica rice is the dominant type of rice. Japonica rice originated from Central China, where it was first domesticated along the Yangtze River basin approximately 9,500 to 6,000 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rice production in China</span>

Rice production in China is the amount of rice planted, grown, and harvested for consumption in the mainland of China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perennial rice</span> Varieties of rice that can grow season after season without re-seeding

Perennial rice are varieties of long-lived rice that are capable of regrowing season after season without reseeding; they are being developed by plant geneticists at several institutions. Although these varieties are genetically distinct and will be adapted for different climates and cropping systems, their lifespan is so different from other kinds of rice that they are collectively called perennial rice. Perennial rice—like many other perennial plants—can spread by horizontal stems below or just above the surface of the soil but they also reproduce sexually by producing flowers, pollen and seeds. As with any other grain crop, it is the seeds that are harvested and eaten by humans.

Plant breeding started with sedentary agriculture, particularly the domestication of the first agricultural plants, a practice which is estimated to date back 9,000 to 11,000 years. Initially, early human farmers selected food plants with particular desirable characteristics and used these as a seed source for subsequent generations, resulting in an accumulation of characteristics over time. In time however, experiments began with deliberate hybridization, the science and understanding of which was greatly enhanced by the work of Gregor Mendel. Mendel's work ultimately led to the new science of genetics. Modern plant breeding is applied genetics, but its scientific basis is broader, covering molecular biology, cytology, systematics, physiology, pathology, entomology, chemistry, and statistics (biometrics). It has also developed its own technology. Plant breeding efforts are divided into a number of different historical landmarks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of rice cultivation</span>

The history of rice cultivation is an interdisciplinary subject that studies archaeological and documentary evidence to explain how rice was first domesticated and cultivated by humans, the spread of cultivation to different regions of the planet, and the technological changes that have impacted cultivation over time.

References

  1. "Oryza sativa L." Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  2. "The Rice Plant". Rice Hub. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  3. Kawure, S.; Garba, Aa; Fagam, As; Shuaibu, Ym; Sabo, Mu; Bala, Ra (December 31, 2022). "Performance of Lowland Rice (Oryza sativa L.) as Influenced by Combine Effect of Season and Sowing Pattern in Zigau". Journal of Rice Research and Developments. 5 (2). doi: 10.36959/973/440 . S2CID   256799161.
  4. "The Rice Plant and How it Grows". International Rice Research Institute . Archived from the original on January 6, 2009.
  5. Beighley, Donn H. (2010). "Growth and Production of Rice". In Verheye, Willy H. (ed.). Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production Volume II. EOLSS Publishers. p. 49. ISBN   978-1-84826-368-0.
  6. "How to plant rice". International Rice Research Institute . Retrieved December 29, 2023.
  7. "Transplanting". International Rice Research Institute . Retrieved December 29, 2023.
  8. Uphoff, Norman. "More rice with less water through SRI - the System of Rice Intensification" (PDF). Cornell University. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 26, 2011. Retrieved May 13, 2012.
  9. "Water Management". International Rice Research Institute . Retrieved November 4, 2023.
  10. Catling, David (1992). "Deepwater Rice Cultures in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin". Rice in Deep Water. International Rice Research Institute. p. 2. ISBN   978-971-22-0005-2.
  11. Gupta, Phool Chand; O'Toole, J. C. O'Toole (1986). Upland Rice: A Global Perspective. International Rice Research Institute. ISBN   978-971-10-4172-4.
  12. "Harvesting systems". International Rice Research Institute . Retrieved January 3, 2024.
  13. "Harvesting". International Rice Research Institute . Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  14. "Drying". International Rice Research Institute . Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  15. Soreng, Robert J.; Peterson, Paul M.; Romaschenko, Konstantin; Davidse, Gerrit; Teisher, Jordan K.; Clark, Lynn G.; Barberá, Patricia; Gillespie, Lynn J.; Zuloaga, Fernando O. (2017). "A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) II: An update and a comparison of two 2015 classifications". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 55 (4): 259–290. doi: 10.1111/jse.12262 . hdl: 10261/240149 . ISSN   1674-4918.
  16. 1 2 Molina, J.; Sikora, M.; Garud, N.; Flowers, J. M.; Rubinstein, S.; et al. (2011). "Molecular evidence for a single evolutionary origin of domesticated rice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (20): 8351–8356. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.8351M. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1104686108 . PMC   3101000 . PMID   21536870.
  17. 1 2 Vaughan, D.A.; Lu, B.; Tomooka, N. (2008). "The evolving story of rice evolution". Plant Science. 174 (4): 394–408. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.01.016. Archived from the original on September 24, 2020. Retrieved March 29, 2021.
  18. Choi, Jae; et al. (2017). "The Rice Paradox: Multiple Origins but Single Domestication in Asian Rice". Molecular Biology and Evolution . 34 (4): 969–979. doi:10.1093/molbev/msx049. PMC   5400379 . PMID   28087768.
  19. Kim, Kyeong J.; et al. (2021). "Radiocarbon Ages of Suyanggae Paleolithic Sites in Danyang, Korea". Radiocarbon . 63 (5): 1429–1444.
  20. 1 2 Choi, Jae Young (March 7, 2019). "The complex geography of domestication of the African rice Oryza glaberrima". PLOS Genetics. 15 (3): e1007414. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007414 . PMC   6424484 . PMID   30845217.
  21. National Research Council (1996). "African Rice". Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains. Vol. 1. National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/2305. ISBN   978-0-309-04990-0. Archived from the original on January 22, 2009. Retrieved July 18, 2008.
  22. 1 2 "Rice production in 2021; Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (from pick lists)". FAOSTAT, UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database. 2023. Retrieved December 4, 2023.
  23. 1 2 3 World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2021. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. 2021. doi:10.4060/cb4477en. ISBN   978-92-5-134332-6. S2CID   240163091 . Retrieved December 10, 2021.
  24. 1 2 Fukagawa, Naomi K.; Ziska, Lewis H. (October 11, 2019). "Rice: Importance for Global Nutrition". Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology. 65 (Supplement): S2–S3. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.65.S2 . ISSN   0301-4800. PMID   31619630.
  25. "FAOSTAT: Production-Crops, 2022 data". United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. 2022.
  26. Yuan, Longping (2010). "A Scientist's Perspective on Experience with SRI in China for Raising the Yields of Super Hybrid Rice" (PDF). Cornell University. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 20, 2011.
  27. "Food Staple". National Geographic Education. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  28. Kumar, Deepak; Kalita, Prasanta (January 15, 2017). "Reducing Postharvest Losses during Storage of Grain Crops to Strengthen Food Security in Developing Countries". Foods. 6 (1): 8. doi: 10.3390/foods6010008 . ISSN   2304-8158. PMC   5296677 . PMID   28231087.
  29. "Milling". International Rice Research Institute . Retrieved January 4, 2024.
  30. 1 2 3 "Types of rice". Rice Association. Archived from the original on August 2, 2018. Retrieved August 2, 2018.
  31. Penagini, Francesca; Dilillo, Dario; Meneghin, Fabio; Mameli, Chiara; Fabiano, Valentina; Zuccotti, Gian (November 18, 2013). "Gluten-Free Diet in Children: An Approach to a Nutritionally Adequate and Balanced Diet". Nutrients. MDPI AG. 5 (11): 4553–4565. doi: 10.3390/nu5114553 . ISSN   2072-6643. PMC   3847748 . PMID   24253052.
  32. Wu, Jianguo G.; Shi, Chunhai; Zhang, Xiaoming (2002). "Estimating the amino acid composition in milled rice by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy". Field Crops Research. Elsevier BV. 75 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1016/s0378-4290(02)00006-0. ISSN   0378-4290.
  33. Cendrowski, Scott (July 25, 2013). "The Rice Rush". Fortune. Retrieved January 4, 2024.
  34. Chilkoti, A. (October 30, 2012). "India and the Price of Rice". Financial Times . London. Archived from the original on January 20, 2013.
  35. "Global rice consumption continues to grow". Grain Central. March 26, 2018. Retrieved December 5, 2023.
  36. "Rice Sector at a Glance". Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture. September 27, 2023. Retrieved December 5, 2023.
  37. "Guide to Rice Varieties". Fine Cooking. February 25, 2008. pp. 1–2. Archived from the original on October 16, 2014. Retrieved July 24, 2014.
  38. "FoodData Central: Rice, white, medium-grain, cooked, unenriched". US Department of Agriculture. April 2018. Retrieved December 5, 2023.
  39. L. M., De-Regil; J. P., Peña-Rosas; A., Laillou; R., Moench-Pfanner; L. A., Mejia; et al. (2018). Guideline: Fortification of Rice with Vitamins and Minerals as a Public Health Strategy. World Health Organization. ISBN   9789241550291. PMID   30307723 . Retrieved December 5, 2023.
  40. "Golden Rice Q&A". Golden Rice Project. Retrieved January 3, 2024.
  41. Ye, Xudong; Al-Babili, Salim; Klöti, Andreas; Zhang, Jing; Lucca, Paola; Beyer, Peter; Potrykus, Ingo (January 14, 2000). "Engineering the Provitamin A (β-Carotene) Biosynthetic Pathway into (Carotenoid-Free) Rice Endosperm". Science . 287 (5451): 303–305. Bibcode:2000Sci...287..303Y. doi:10.1126/science.287.5451.303. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   10634784. S2CID   40258379.
  42. Lynas, Mark (August 26, 2013). "Anti-GMO Activists Lie About Attack on Rice Crop (and About So Many Other Things)". Slate Magazine . Retrieved August 21, 2021.
  43. Roberts, Richard J. (2018). "The Nobel Laureates' Campaign Supporting GMOs". Journal of Innovation & Knowledge. 3 (2): 61–65. doi: 10.1016/j.jik.2017.12.006 .
  44. "Sectors: Rice cultivation". climatetrace.org. Retrieved December 7, 2023.
  45. Qian, Haoyu; Zhu, Xiangchen; Huang, Shan; Linquist, Bruce; Kuzyakov, Yakov; et al. (October 2023). "Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation in rice agriculture". Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 4 (10): 716–732. Bibcode:2023NRvEE...4..716Q. doi:10.1038/s43017-023-00482-1. ISSN   2662-138X. S2CID   263197017. Rice paddies …. account for ~48% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from croplands.
  46. Gupta, Khushboo; Kumar, Raushan; Baruah, Kushal Kumar; Hazarika, Samarendra; Karmakar, Susmita; Bordoloi, Nirmali (June 2021). "Greenhouse gas emission from rice fields: a review from Indian context". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International. 28 (24): 30551–30572. Bibcode:2021ESPR...2830551G. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-13935-1. PMID   33905059. S2CID   233403787.
  47. Neue, H. U. (1993). "Methane emission from rice fields: Wetland rice fields may make a major contribution to global warming". BioScience . 43 (7): 466–473. doi:10.2307/1311906. JSTOR   1311906. Archived from the original on January 15, 2008. Retrieved February 4, 2008.
  48. Qian, Haoyu; Zhu, Xiangchen; Huang, Shan; Linquist, Bruce; Kuzyakov, Yakov; et al. (October 2023). "Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation in rice agriculture". Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 4 (10): 716–732. Bibcode:2023NRvEE...4..716Q. doi:10.1038/s43017-023-00482-1. ISSN   2662-138X. S2CID   263197017.
  49. Welch, Jarrod R.; Vincent, Jeffrey R.; Auffhammer, Maximilian; Moya, Piedad F.; Dobermann, Achim; Dawe, David (August 9, 2010). "Rice yields in tropical/subtropical Asia exhibit large but opposing sensitivities to minimum and maximum temperatures". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (33): 14562–14567. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1001222107 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   2930450 . PMID   20696908.
  50. Black, R. (August 9, 2010). "Rice yields falling under global warming". BBC News: Science & Environment. Archived from the original on April 5, 2018. Retrieved August 9, 2010.
  51. Singh, S.K. (2016). "Climate Change: Impact on Indian Agriculture & its Mitigation". Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research. 3 (10): 857–859.
  52. Rao, Prakash; Patil, Y. (2017). Reconsidering the Impact of Climate Change on Global Water Supply, Use, and Management. IGI Global. p. 330. ISBN   978-1-5225-1047-5.
  53. "Pests and diseases management". International Rice Research Institute . Retrieved January 4, 2024.
  54. "Insects". International Rice Research Institute . Retrieved January 4, 2024.
  55. Jahn, Gary C.; Almazan, Liberty P.; Pacia, Jocelyn B. (2005). "Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Intrinsic Rate of Increase of Hysteroneura setariae (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on Rice (Oryza sativa L.)". Environmental Entomology . 34 (4): 938. doi: 10.1603/0046-225X-34.4.938 . S2CID   1941852.
  56. Douangboupha, B.; Khamphoukeo, K.; Inthavong, S.; Schiller, J.M.; Jahn, G.C. (2006). "Chapter 17: Pests and diseases of the rice production systems of Laos" (PDF). In Schiller, J.M.; Chanphengxay, M.B.; Linquist, B.; Rao, S.A. (eds.). Rice in Laos. Los Baños, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute. pp. 265–281. ISBN   978-971-22-0211-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 3, 2012.
  57. Dean, Ralph A.; Talbot, Nicholas J.; Ebbole, Daniel J.; et al. (April 2005). "The genome sequence of the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe grisea". Nature. 434 (7036): 980–986. Bibcode:2005Natur.434..980D. doi: 10.1038/nature03449 . PMID   15846337.
  58. 1 2 Liu, Wende; Liu, Jinling; Triplett, Lindsay; Leach, Jan E.; Wang, Guo-Liang (August 4, 2014). "Novel Insights into Rice Innate Immunity Against Bacterial and Fungal Pathogens". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 52 (1): 213–241. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-102313-045926. ISSN   0066-4286. PMID   24906128.
  59. Hibino, H. (1996). "Biology and epidemiology of rice viruses". Annual Review of Phytopathology . Annual Reviews. 34 (1): 249–274. doi:10.1146/annurev.phyto.34.1.249. PMID   15012543.
  60. Jahn, Gary C.; Khiev. B.; Pol, C.; Chhorn, N.; Pheng, S.; Preap, V. (2001). "Developing sustainable pest management for rice in Cambodia". In Suthipradit S.; Kuntha C.; Lorlowhakarn, S.; Rakngan, J. (eds.). Sustainable Agriculture: Possibility and Direction. Bangkok (Thailand): National Science and Technology Development Agency. pp. 243–258.
  61. Savary, S.; Horgan, F.; Willocquet, L.; Heong (2012). "A review of principles for sustainable pest management in rice". Crop Protection. 32: 54. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2011.10.012.
  62. "Bangladeshi farmers banish insecticides". SCIDEV.net. July 30, 2004. Archived from the original on January 26, 2008. Retrieved May 13, 2012.
  63. Wu, Jincai; Ge, Linquan; Liu, Fang; Song, Qisheng; Stanley, David (January 7, 2020). "Pesticide-Induced Planthopper Population Resurgence in Rice Cropping Systems". Annual Review of Entomology. 65 (1): 409–429. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-025215. ISSN   0066-4170. PMID   31610135. S2CID   204702698.
  64. Hamilton, Henry Sackville (January 18, 2008). "The pesticide paradox". International Rice Research Institute. Archived from the original on January 19, 2012.
  65. Bezemer, Marjolein (October 23, 2022). "Mixed farming increases rice yield". reNature Foundation. Archived from the original on October 11, 2019. Retrieved January 2, 2024.
  66. Cagauan, A. G.; Branckaert, R. D.; Van Hove, C. (2000). "Integrating fish and azolla into rice-duck farming in Asia" (PDF). Naga (ICLARM Quarterly). 23 (1): 4–10.
  67. Xin, Zhaojun; Yu, Zhaonan; Erb, Matthias; Turlings, Ted C. J.; Wang, Baohui; et al. (April 2012). "The broad-leaf herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid turns rice into a living trap for a major insect pest and a parasitic wasp". The New Phytologist. 194 (2): 498–510. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04057.x. PMID   22313362.
  68. Cheng, Yao; Shi, Zhao-Peng; Jiang, Li-Ben; Ge, Lin-Quan; Wu, Jin-Cai; Jahn, Gary C. (March 2012). "Possible connection between imidacloprid-induced changes in rice gene transcription profiles and susceptibility to the brown plant hopper Nilaparvatalugens Stål (Hemiptera: Delphacidae)". Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. 102–531 (3): 213–219. doi:10.1016/j.pestbp.2012.01.003. PMC   3334832 . PMID   22544984.
  69. Makkar, Gurpreet Singh; Bhatia, Dharminder; Suri, K.S.; Kaur, Simranjeet (2019). "Insect resistance in Rice (Oryza sativa L.): overview on current breeding interventions". International Journal of Tropical Insect Science. 39 (4): 259–272. doi:10.1007/s42690-019-00038-1. ISSN   1742-7592. S2CID   202011174.
  70. "The International Rice Genebank – conserving rice". International Rice Research Institute. Archived from the original on October 23, 2012.
  71. Jackson, M. T. (September 1997). "Conservation of rice genetic resources: the role of the International Rice Genebank at IRRI". Plant Molecular Biology . 35 (1–2): 61–67. doi:10.1023/A:1005709332130. PMID   9291960. S2CID   3360337.
  72. Sattaka, Patcha (December 27, 2016). "Geographical Distribution of Glutinous Rice in the Greater Mekong Sub-region". Journal of Mekong Societies. 12 (3): 27–48. ISSN   2697-6056.
  73. "NERICA: Rice for Life" (PDF). Africa Rice Center (WARDA). 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 4, 2003. Retrieved July 7, 2008.
  74. Gillis, J. (August 11, 2005). "Rice Genome Fully Mapped". The Washington Post . Archived from the original on March 30, 2017. Retrieved September 10, 2017.
  75. Shang, Lianguang; Li, Xiaoxia; He, Huiying; Yuan, Qiaoling; Song, Yanni; et al. (2022). "A super pan-genomic landscape of rice". Cell Research. 32 (10): 878–896. doi:10.1038/s41422-022-00685-z. ISSN   1748-7838. PMC   9525306 . PMID   35821092.
  76. 1 2 Hettel, Gene (November 18, 2016). "IR8—a rice variety for the ages". Rice Today. Retrieved December 29, 2023.
  77. Marris, E. (May 18, 2007). "Rice with human proteins to take root in Kansas". Nature. doi:10.1038/news070514-17. S2CID   84688423.
  78. Bethell, D.R.; Huang, J. (June 2004). "Recombinant human lactoferrin treatment for global health issues: iron deficiency and acute diarrhea". Biometals. 17 (3): 337–342. doi:10.1023/B:BIOM.0000027714.56331.b8. PMID   15222487. S2CID   3106602.
  79. 1 2 Debrata, Panda; Sarkar, Ramani Kumar (2012). "Role of Non-Structural Carbohydrate and its Catabolism Associated with Sub 1 QTL in Rice Subjected to Complete Submergence". Experimental Agriculture. 48 (4): 502–512. doi:10.1017/S0014479712000397. S2CID   86192842.
  80. " "Climate change-ready rice". International Rice Research Institute. Archived from the original on October 28, 2012. Retrieved October 31, 2013.
  81. 1 2 "Drought, submergence and salinity management". International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Archived from the original on November 1, 2013. Retrieved September 29, 2013.
  82. 1 2 " "Climate change-ready rice". International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Archived from the original on March 14, 2014. Retrieved September 29, 2013.
  83. 1 2 3 Palmer, Neil (2013). "Newly-discovered rice gene goes to the root of drought resistance". International Center for Tropical Agriculture. Archived from the original on November 3, 2013. Retrieved September 29, 2013.
  84. "Roots breakthrough for drought resistant rice". Phys.org. 2013. Archived from the original on November 2, 2013. Retrieved September 30, 2013.
  85. "Rice Breeding Course, Breeding for salt tolerance in rice, on line". International Rice Research Institute . Archived from the original on May 5, 2017.
  86. "Fredenburg, P. (2007). "Less salt, please". International Rice Research Institute. Archived from the original on November 1, 2013. Retrieved September 30, 2013.
  87. 1 2 "Barona-Edna, Liz (April 15, 2013). "Wild parent spawns super salt tolerant rice". Rice Today. Retrieved January 3, 2024.
  88. 1 2 " "Breakthrough in salt-resistant rice research—single baby rice plant may hold the future to extending rice farming". Integrated Breeding Platform (IBP). 2013. Archived from the original on November 2, 2013. Retrieved October 6, 2013.
  89. Su, J.; Hu, C.; Yan, X.; Jin, Y.; Chen, Z.; et al. (July 2015). "Expression of barley SUSIBA2 transcription factor yields high-starch low-methane rice". Nature. 523 (7562): 602–606. Bibcode:2015Natur.523..602S. doi:10.1038/nature14673. PMID   26200336. S2CID   4454200.
  90. Gerry, C. (August 9, 2015). "Feeding the World One Genetically Modified Tomato at a Time: A Scientific Perspective". Harvard University. Archived from the original on September 10, 2015. Retrieved September 11, 2015.
  91. Luo, Qiong; Li, Yafei; Shen, Yi; Cheng, Zhukuan (March 2014). "Ten years of gene discovery for meiotic event control in rice". Journal of Genetics and Genomics. 41 (3): 125–137. doi: 10.1016/j.jgg.2014.02.002 . PMID   24656233.
  92. Tang, Ding; Miao, Chunbo; Li, Yafei; Wang, Hongjun; Liu, Xiaofei; Yu, Hengxiu; Cheng, Zhukuan (2014). "OsRAD51C is essential for double-strand break repair in rice meiosis". Frontiers in Plant Science. 5: 167. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00167 . PMC   4019848 . PMID   24847337.
  93. Ahuja, Subhash C.; Ahuja, Uma (2006). "Rice in religion and tradition". 2nd International Rice Congress, October 9–13, 2006. New Delhi: 45–52.
  94. Muhammad, Rosmaliza; Zahari, Mohd Salehuddin Mohd; Ramly, Alina Shuhaida Muhammad; Ahmad, Roslina (2013). "The Roles and Symbolism of Foods in Malay Wedding Ceremony". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 101: 268–276. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.200 . ISSN   1877-0428.
  95. Ahuja, Uma; Thakrar, Rashmi; Ahuja, S. C. (2001). "Alcoholic rice beverages". Asian Agri-History. 5 (4): 309–319.
  96. Wessing, Robert (1990). "Sri and Sedana and Sita and Rama: Myths of Fertility and Generation". Asian Folklore Studies. 49 (2): 235–257. doi:10.2307/1178035. JSTOR   1178035.
  97. "Cambodia marks beginning of farming season with royal ploughing ceremony". Xinhua. March 21, 2017. Archived from the original on May 3, 2018. Retrieved December 6, 2021.
  98. "Ceremony Predicts Good Year". Khmer Times . May 23, 2016. Retrieved December 6, 2021.
  99. Sen, S. (July 2, 2019). "Ancient royal paddy planting ceremony marked". The Himalayan Times. Retrieved December 6, 2021.

Further reading