Rice as food

Rice is commonly consumed as food around the world. It occurs in long-, medium-, and short-grained types. It is the staple food of over half the world's population.

Hazards associated with rice consumption include arsenic from the soil, and Bacillus cereus which can grow in poorly-stored cooked rice, and cause food poisoning.

Types

The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, and short-grained. ^[1] The grains of long-grain rice (high in amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking; medium-grain rice (high in amylopectin) becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes, for risotto in Italy, and many rice dishes, such as arròs negre , in Spain. Some varieties of long-grain rice that are high in amylopectin, known as Thai Sticky rice, are usually steamed. ^[2] A stickier short-grain rice is used for sushi; ^[3] the stickiness allows rice to hold its shape when cooked. ^[4] Short-grain rice is used extensively in Japan, ^[5] including to accompany savoury dishes. ^[6] Short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding.

Independent of grain length and starchiness, rice can also be differentiated by traits such as aroma ^[7] and pigmentation (red, black). So-called wild rice, which are close cousins of domesticated rice, are not usually included in this classification.

• 
  Rice comes in many shapes, colors, and sizes
• 
  Jumli Marshi rice, unhulled, Nepal

Rice also differs by the processing applied to it. Rice starts as whole seeds with inedible rice hulls; removing the hull by milling produces brown rice. Polishing produces first rice with germ, then white rice. Cooking white rice then drying produces instant rice, though there is a significant degradation in taste and texture. Parboiled rice is different from instant rice: parboiled rice is first part-cooked with the husk before milling.

Rice flour and starch often are used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness.

• 
  Rice processing
  A: Rice with chaff
  B: Brown rice
  C: Rice with germ
  D: White rice with bran residue
  E: Polished
  (1): Chaff
  (2): Bran
  (3): Bran residue
  (4): Cereal germ
  (5): Endosperm
• 
  Unmilled to milled Japanese rice, from left to right, brown rice, rice with germ, white rice
• 
  Cooked brown rice, Bhutan
• 
  Cooked white rice

Taste factors

The two main components and determinants of taste in rice are starch and protein. ^{[8] [9]} 80-90% of the weight of an uncooked rice grain is starch, and 7-10% is protein. ^{[9] [10]} Other important components of rice include fat, fibers, and minerals, all comprising less than 1% of rice by weight. ^[11]

The ratio of the two types of starch, linear amylose and branched amylopectin, affects cooked rice texture. Rice is mostly amylopectin, with amylose making up only 0-30% of the total starch. ^{[11] [12]} Amylopectin chains form double helices with each other and encourage crystallization, which raises the peak viscosity and starch gelatinization ability of cooked rice, ^{[12] [13]} meaning higher amylopectin content in rice will lead to a stickier cooked product. ^[14] Gelatinization is also inhibited by protein, and a higher protein content leads to increased hardness of the surface of rice grains. ^{[8] [13]} Protein and amylose content is determined by the conditions of rice growth. Higher concentrations of fertilizer result in higher protein content, ^{[15] [16]} and nonoptimal environmental factors such as higher temperature and insufficient water make rice chalkier by decreasing starch levels. ^{[17] [18]}

Preparation

Rinsing rice before cooking removes much of the starch, thereby reducing the extent to which individual grains will stick together. This yields a fluffier rice, whereas not rinsing yields a stickier and creamier result. ^[19] Rice produced in the US is usually fortified with vitamins and minerals, and rinsing will result in a loss of nutrients. In 2007, Haitian jails suffered from a beriberi epidemic as US-supplied enriched rice were washed before cooking, stripping them of the nutritious layer; ^[20] this is despite FDA's rules requiring fortification nutrients to be somewhat resistant to washing. ^[21]

Rice may be soaked to decrease cooking time, conserve fuel, minimize exposure to high temperature, and reduce stickiness. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of the grains. Rice may be soaked for 30 minutes up to several hours.

Brown rice may be soaked in warm water for 20 hours to stimulate germination. This process, called germinated brown rice (GBR), ^[22] activates enzymes and enhances amino acids including gamma-aminobutyric acid to improve the nutritional value of brown rice. This method is a result of research carried out for the United Nations International Year of Rice.

Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water during cooking. With the absorption method, rice is cooked in a volume of water equal to the volume of dry rice plus any evaporation losses, which is commonly measured with the tip of the finger. ^{[23] [24] [25] [26]} With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving. Rapid-boil preparation is not desirable with enriched rice, as much of the enrichment additives are lost when the water is discarded. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice. Rice (or any other grain) is sometimes quickly fried in oil or fat before boiling (for example saffron rice or risotto); this makes the cooked rice less sticky, and is a cooking style commonly called pilaf in Iran and Afghanistan or biryani in India and Pakistan.

Dishes

Main article: List of rice dishes

In Arab cuisine, rice is an ingredient of many soups and dishes with fish, poultry, and other types of meat. It is used to stuff vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves (dolma). When combined with milk, sugar, and honey, it is used to make desserts. In some regions, such as Tabaristan, bread is made using rice flour. Rice may be made into congee (also called rice porridge or rice gruel) by adding more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water, usually to the point that it disintegrates. Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, and is a traditional food for the sick.

Nutrition

Rice, white, long-grain, regular, unenriched, cooked without salt

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	130 kcal (540 kJ)
Carbohydrates	28.1 g
Sugars	0.05 g
Dietary fiber	0.4 g
Fat	0.28 g
Protein	2.69 g
Vitamins	Quantity %DV†
Thiamine (B1)	2% 0.02 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	1% 0.013 mg
Niacin (B3)	3% 0.4 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)	0% 0 mg
Vitamin B6	7% 0.093 mg
Folate (B9)	0% 0 μg
Minerals	Quantity %DV†
Calcium	1% 10 mg
Iron	2% 0.2 mg
Magnesium	3% 12 mg
Manganese	22% 0.472 mg
Phosphorus	6% 43 mg
Potassium	1% 35 mg
Sodium	0% 1 mg
Zinc	1% 0.049 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	68.44 g
Link to USDA FoodData Central entry
Units μg = micrograms  •mg = milligrams IU = International units
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA FoodData Central

Rice is the staple food of over half the world's population. It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17 countries in Asia and the Pacific, 9 countries in North and South America and 8 countries in Africa. Rice provides 20% of the world's dietary energy supply, while wheat supplies 19% and maize (corn) 5%. ^[27]

Cooked unenriched long-grain white rice is composed of 68% water, 28% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 1% fat (table). A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving of it provides 540 kilojoules (130 kilocalories) of food energy and contains moderate amounts of manganese per 100-gram serving (table). Cooked unenriched short-grain rice has a very similar nutritional profile (see footnote link). ^[28]

A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggests that the nutrition value of rice varies based on a number of factors. It depends on the type and strain of rice, such as white, brown, red, and black (or purple) varieties, each having different prevalence across world regions. ^[29] It also depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grown in, whether and how the rice is polished or processed, the manner it is enriched, and how it is prepared before consumption. ^[30]

A 2018 World Health Organization (WHO) guideline showed that fortification of rice to reduce malnutrition may involve different micronutrient strategies, including iron only, iron with zinc, vitamin A, and folic acid, or iron with other B-complex vitamins, such as thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, and pantothenic acid. ^[29] A systematic review of clinical research on the efficacy of rice fortification showed the strategy had the main effect of reducing the risk of iron deficiency by 35% and increasing blood levels of hemoglobin. ^[29] The guideline established a major recommendation: "Fortification of rice with iron is recommended as a public health strategy to improve the iron status of populations, in settings where rice is a staple food." ^[29]

Rice grown experimentally under elevated carbon dioxide levels, similar to those predicted for the year 2100 as a result of human activity, had less iron, zinc, and protein, as well as lower levels of thiamin, riboflavin, folic acid, and pantothenic acid. ^[31] The following table shows the nutrient content of rice and other major staple foods in a raw form on a dry weight basis to account for their different water contents. ^[32]

Nutrient content of 10 major staple foods per 100 g dry weight ^[33]

Staple	Maize (corn) [A]	Rice, white [B]	Wheat [C]	Potatoes [D]	Cassava [E]	Soybeans, green [F]	Sweet potatoes [G]	Yams [Y]	Sorghum [H]	Plantain [Z]	RDA
Water content (%)	10	12	13	79	60	68	77	70	9	65
Raw grams per 100 g dry weight	111	114	115	476	250	313	435	333	110	286
Nutrient
Energy (kJ)	1698	1736	1574	1533	1675	1922	1565	1647	1559	1460	8,368–10,460
Protein (g)	10.4	8.1	14.5	9.5	3.5	40.6	7.0	5.0	12.4	3.7	50
Fat (g)	5.3	0.8	1.8	0.4	0.7	21.6	0.2	0.6	3.6	1.1	44–77
Carbohydrates (g)	82	91	82	81	95	34	87	93	82	91	130
Fiber (g)	8.1	1.5	14.0	10.5	4.5	13.1	13.0	13.7	6.9	6.6	30
Sugar (g)	0.7	0.1	0.5	3.7	4.3	0.0	18.2	1.7	0.0	42.9	minimal
Minerals	[A]	[B]	[C]	[D]	[E]	[F]	[G]	[Y]	[H]	[Z]	RDA
Calcium (mg)	8	32	33	57	40	616	130	57	31	9	1,000
Iron (mg)	3.01	0.91	3.67	3.71	0.68	11.09	2.65	1.80	4.84	1.71	8
Magnesium (mg)	141	28	145	110	53	203	109	70	0	106	400
Phosphorus (mg)	233	131	331	271	68	606	204	183	315	97	700
Potassium (mg)	319	131	417	2005	678	1938	1465	2720	385	1426	4700
Sodium (mg)	39	6	2	29	35	47	239	30	7	11	1,500
Zinc (mg)	2.46	1.24	3.05	1.38	0.85	3.09	1.30	0.80	0.00	0.40	11
Copper (mg)	0.34	0.25	0.49	0.52	0.25	0.41	0.65	0.60	-	0.23	0.9
Manganese (mg)	0.54	1.24	4.59	0.71	0.95	1.72	1.13	1.33	-	-	2.3
Selenium (μg)	17.2	17.2	81.3	1.4	1.8	4.7	2.6	2.3	0.0	4.3	55
Vitamins	[A]	[B]	[C]	[D]	[E]	[F]	[G]	[Y]	[H]	[Z]	RDA
Vitamin C (mg)	0.0	0.0	0.0	93.8	51.5	90.6	10.4	57.0	0.0	52.6	90
Thiamin (B1) (mg)	0.43	0.08	0.34	0.38	0.23	1.38	0.35	0.37	0.26	0.14	1.2
Riboflavin (B2) (mg)	0.22	0.06	0.14	0.14	0.13	0.56	0.26	0.10	0.15	0.14	1.3
Niacin (B3) (mg)	4.03	1.82	6.28	5.00	2.13	5.16	2.43	1.83	3.22	1.97	16
Pantothenic acid (B5) (mg)	0.47	1.15	1.09	1.43	0.28	0.47	3.48	1.03	-	0.74	5
Vitamin B6 (mg)	0.69	0.18	0.34	1.43	0.23	0.22	0.91	0.97	-	0.86	1.3
Folate Total (B9) (μg)	21	9	44	76	68	516	48	77	0	63	400
Vitamin A (IU)	238	0	10	10	33	563	4178	460	0	3220	5000
Vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol (mg)	0.54	0.13	1.16	0.05	0.48	0.00	1.13	1.30	0.00	0.40	15
Vitamin K1 (μg)	0.3	0.1	2.2	9.0	4.8	0.0	7.8	8.7	0.0	2.0	120
Beta-carotene (μg)	108	0	6	5	20	0	36996	277	0	1306	10500
Lutein+zeaxanthin (μg)	1506	0	253	38	0	0	0	0	0	86	6000
Fats	[A]	[B]	[C]	[D]	[E]	[F]	[G]	[Y]	[H]	[Z]	RDA
Saturated fatty acids (g)	0.74	0.20	0.30	0.14	0.18	2.47	0.09	0.13	0.51	0.40	minimal
Monounsaturated fatty acids (g)	1.39	0.24	0.23	0.00	0.20	4.00	0.00	0.03	1.09	0.09	22–55
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g)	2.40	0.20	0.72	0.19	0.13	10.00	0.04	0.27	1.51	0.20	13–19
	[A]	[B]	[C]	[D]	[E]	[F]	[G]	[Y]	[H]	[Z]	RDA

^A raw yellow dent corn
^B raw unenriched long-grain white rice
^C raw hard red winter wheat
^D raw potato with flesh and skin
^E raw cassava
^F raw green soybeans
^G raw sweet potato
^H raw sorghum
^Y raw yam
^Z raw plantains
^/* unofficial

Hazards

Arsenic

Main article: Arsenic poisoning

As arsenic occurs in soil, water, and air, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) monitors the levels of arsenic in foods, particularly in rice products used commonly for infant food. ^[34] While growing, rice plants tend to absorb arsenic more readily than other food crops, requiring expanded testing by the FDA for possible arsenic-related risks associated with rice consumption in the United States. ^[34] In April 2016, the FDA proposed a limit of 100 parts per billion (ppb) for inorganic arsenic in infant rice cereal and other foods to minimize exposure of infants to arsenic. ^[34] For water contamination by arsenic, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has set a lower standard of 10 ppb. ^[35]

Arsenic is a IARC Group 1 carcinogen. ^{[34] [36]} The amount of arsenic in rice varies widely with the greatest concentration in brown rice and rice grown on land formerly used to grow cotton, such as in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas. ^[37] White rice grown in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas, which account collectively for 76 percent of American-produced rice, had higher levels of arsenic than other regions of the world studied, possibly because of past use of arsenic-based pesticides to control cotton weevils. ^[38] Jasmine rice from Thailand and Basmati rice from Pakistan and India contain the least arsenic among rice varieties in one study. ^[38]

Bacillus cereus

Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, which produce an emetic toxin when left at 4–60 °C (39–140 °F). When storing cooked rice for use the next day, rapid cooling is advised to reduce the risk of toxin production. ^[39] One of the enterotoxins produced by Bacillus cereus is heat-resistant; reheating contaminated rice kills the bacteria, but does not destroy the toxin already present.

References

1. Fine Cooking, ed. (February 25, 2008). "Guide to Rice". Fine Cooking. Archived from the original on October 16, 2014. Retrieved July 24, 2014.
2. Loha-unchit, K. "White Sticky Rice – Kao Niow". Archived from the original on October 13, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2012.
3. America's Test Kitchen (October 6, 2020). The Best of America's Test Kitchen 2021: Best Recipes, Equipment Reviews, and Tastings. America's Test Kitchen. p. 282. ISBN   978-1-948703-40-6.
4. Simmons, Marie (March 10, 2009). The Amazing World of Rice: with 150 Recipes for Pilafs, Paellas, Puddings, and More. HarperCollins. p. 23. ISBN   978-0-06-187543-4.
5. Foreign Crops and Markets. United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service. 1928. p. 850.
6. Alford, Jeffrey; Duguid, Naomi (January 1, 2003). Seductions of Rice. Artisan. p. 31. ISBN   978-1-57965-234-0.
7. Shan, Q; Zhang, Y; Chen, K; Zhang, K; Gao, C (August 2015). "Creation of fragrant rice by targeted knockout of the OsBADH2 gene using TALEN technology". Plant Biotechnology Journal. 13 (6): 791–800. doi: 10.1111/pbi.12312 . PMID   25599829.
8. Liu, Qiuyuan; Tao, Yu; Cheng, Shuang; Zhou, Lei; Tian, Jinyu; Xing, Zhipeng; Liu, Guodong; Wei, Haiyan; Zhang, Hongcheng (November 2020). "Relating amylose and protein contents to eating quality in 105 varieties of Japonica rice". Cereal Chemistry. 97 (6): 1303–1312. doi:10.1002/cche.10358. ISSN   0009-0352. S2CID   225104878.
9. Butardo, Vito M.; Sreenivasulu, Nese; Juliano, Bienvenido O. (2019), Sreenivasulu, Nese (ed.), "Improving Rice Grain Quality: State-of-the-Art and Future Prospects", Rice Grain Quality, Methods in Molecular Biology, New York, NY: Springer New York, vol. 1892, pp. 19–55, doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-8914-0_2, ISBN   978-1-4939-8912-6, PMID   30397798, S2CID   53245785 , retrieved 2023-11-29
10. Butardo, Vito M.; Sreenivasulu, Nese (2016), "Tailoring Grain Storage Reserves for a Healthier Rice Diet and its Comparative Status with Other Cereals", International Review of Cell and Molecular Biology, Elsevier, 323: 31–70, doi:10.1016/bs.ircmb.2015.12.003, ISBN   978-0-12-804808-5, PMID   26944618 , retrieved 2023-11-29
11. Kasote, Deepak; Sreenivasulu, Nese; Acuin, Cecilia; Regina, Ahmed (2022-10-17). "Enhancing health benefits of milled rice: current status and future perspectives". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 62 (29): 8099–8119. doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1925629. ISSN   1040-8398. PMID   34036858. S2CID   235201821.
12. Ito, Vivian Cristina; Lacerda, Luiz Gustavo (2019-12-15). "Black rice (Oryza sativa L.): A review of its historical aspects, chemical composition, nutritional and functional properties, and applications and processing technologies". Food Chemistry. 301: 125304. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125304. ISSN   0308-8146. PMID   31394335. S2CID   199507042.
13. Shi, Shijie; Wang, Enting; Li, Chengxuan; Cai, Mingli; Cheng, Bo; Cao, Cougui; Jiang, Yang (2022-01-13). "Use of Protein Content, Amylose Content, and RVA Parameters to Evaluate the Taste Quality of Rice". Frontiers in Nutrition. 8. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.758547 . ISSN   2296-861X. PMC   8793496 . PMID   35096925.
14. Shi, Shi-jie; Zhang, Gao-yu; Cao, Cou-gui; Jiang, Yang (July 2023). "Untargeted UHPLC–Q-Exactive-MS-based metabolomics reveals associations between pre- and post-cooked metabolites and the taste quality of geographical indication rice and regular rice". Journal of Integrative Agriculture. 22 (7): 2271–2281. doi: 10.1016/j.jia.2023.06.003 . S2CID   259071465.
15. Shi, Shijie; Ma, Yingying; Zhao, Dan; Li, Lina; Cao, Cougui; Jiang, Yang (December 2023). "The differences in metabolites, starch structure, and physicochemical properties of rice were related to the decrease in taste quality under high nitrogen fertilizer application". International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 253 (Pt 1): 126546. doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126546. PMID   37643670. S2CID   261265203.
16. Xiong, Ruoyu; Tan, Xueming; Yang, Taotao; Wang, Haixia; Pan, Xiaohua; Zeng, Yongjun; Zhang, Jun; Zeng, Yanhua (December 2023). "Starch multiscale structure and physicochemical property alterations in high-quality indica rice quality and cooked rice texture under different nitrogen panicle fertilizer applications". International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 252: 126455. doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126455. PMID   37633549. S2CID   261184930.
17. Jing, Liquan; Chen, Chen; Lu, Qi; Wang, Yunxia; Zhu, Jianguo; Lai, Shangkun; Wang, Yulong; Yang, Lianxin (April 2021). "How do elevated atmosphere CO2 and temperature alter the physiochemical properties of starch granules and rice taste?". Science of the Total Environment. 766: 142592. Bibcode:2021ScTEn.766n2592J. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142592. PMID   33071134. S2CID   224783804.
18. Wang, Guan; Shen, Xinru; Bai, Chenyang; Zhuang, Zixin; Jiang, Hao; Yang, Meiying; Wei, Xiaoshuang; Wu, Zhihai (November 2023). "Metabolomic study on the quality differences and physiological characteristics between rice cultivated in drought and flood conditions". Food Chemistry. 425: 135946. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135946. PMID   37300996. S2CID   258471389.
19. Kenyon, Chelsie. Knack Mexican Cooking: A Step-by-Step Guide to Authentic Dishes Made Easy. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 15. ISBN   978-0-7627-6206-4.
20. Sprague, Jeb; Alexandra, Eunida (17 January 2007). "Haiti: Mysterious Prison Ailment Traced to U.S. Rice". Inter Press Service. Archived from the original on 30 May 2013.
21. "21 CFR § 137.350 - Enriched rice". LII / Legal Information Institute. Archived from the original on 2023-03-03. Retrieved 2023-03-03.
22. Ito, Shoichi; Ishikawa, Yukihiro. "Marketing of Value-Added Rice Products in Japan: Germinated Grown Rice and Rice Bread". Japan: Tottori University. Archived from the original on May 30, 2013. Retrieved February 12, 2004.
23. Davidson, Alan (2014). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford University Press. p. 618. ISBN   978-0-19-967733-7 . Retrieved July 21, 2023. the [Filipino] way of measuring is to put the middle finger in, and add enough water to reach the knuckle
24. Tila, Jet (2017). 101 Asian Dishes You Need to Cook Before You Die. Page Street Publishing Co. p. 174. ISBN   978-1-62414-382-3 . Retrieved July 21, 2023. Insert your index until touching the top of the rice with your fingertip. Add water until the water just reaches the first crease of your finger.
25. Souza, Dan (November 17, 2018). The Best Way to Cook Rice is All About the Right Ratio. What's Eating Dan?. America's Test Kitchen.
26. "Simmering Rice". exploratorium.edu. Archived from the original on February 22, 2020. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
27. "Rice is Life" (PDF). United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 10, 2011. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
28. "168932/2512381/20444 Rice, white, long grain, unenriched, raw". fdc.nal.usda.gov.
29. Guideline: Fortification of rice with vitamins and minerals as a public health strategy (PDF). World Health Organization (WHO). 2018. ISBN   978-92-4-155029-1 . Retrieved August 7, 2018.
30. Bo, Juliano (1993). "Rice in human nutrition". United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Archived from the original on October 1, 2011. Retrieved November 21, 2011.
31. Wishart, Skye (July–August 2018). "Second-rate grains". New Zealand Geographic (152): 25. Archived from the original on August 3, 2018. Retrieved August 3, 2018.
32. "USDA FoodData Central". United States Department of Agriculture. April 1, 2019. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
33. "Nutrient data laboratory". United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved August 10, 2016.
34. "Arsenic in Rice and Rice Products". United States Environmental Protection Agency. April 24, 2017. Archived from the original on May 2, 2017. Retrieved May 12, 2017.
35. "Chemical Contaminant Rules". United States Environmental Protection Agency. April 24, 2017. Archived from the original on May 19, 2017. Retrieved May 12, 2017.
36. EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) (October 28, 2009). "Scientific Opinion on Arsenic in Food". EFSA Journal . 7 (10): 1351. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1351 .
37. "Arsenic in your food: Our findings show a real need for federal standards for this toxin". Consumer Reports . November 2012. Archived from the original on March 8, 2014. Retrieved March 13, 2014.
38. Potera, Carol (June 2007). "U.S. rice serves up arsenic". Environmental Health Perspectives . 115 (6): A296. doi:10.1289/ehp.115-a296. PMC   1892142 . PMID   17589576.
39. "Can reheating rice cause food poisoning?". National Health Service . June 26, 2018. Archived from the original on July 8, 2013. Retrieved February 19, 2012.