Spelt

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Spelt
Spelt.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Pooideae
Genus: Triticum
Species:
T. spelta
Binomial name
Triticum spelta
L.
Synonyms [1]
  • Spelta vulgarisSer.
  • Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta(L.) Thell
  • Triticum ariasClemente
  • Triticum elymoidesHornem.
  • Triticum forskaleiClemente
  • Triticum palmovaeG.I.Ivanov
  • Triticum rufescensSteud. nom. inval.
  • Triticum speltiformeSeidl ex Opiz
  • Triticum speltoidesFlaksb. nom. inval.
  • Triticum zeaHost
  • Zeia spelta(L.) Lunell

Spelt (Triticum spelta), also known as dinkel wheat [2] is a species of wheat. It is a relict crop, eaten in Central Europe and northern Spain. It is high in protein and may be considered a health food.

Contents

Spelt was cultivated from the Neolithic period onward. It was a staple food in parts of Europe from the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages. It is used in baking, and is made into bread, pasta, and beer.

It is sometimes considered a subspecies of the closely related species common wheat (T. aestivum), in which case its botanical name is considered to be Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta. It is a hexaploid, most likely a hybrid of wheat and emmer.

Description

Spelt is a species of Triticum , a large stout grass similar to bread wheat. Its flowering spike is slenderer than that of bread wheat; when ripe, it bends somewhat from the vertical. The spike is roughly four-edged. The axis of the spike is brittle and divided into segments; it shatters into separate segments when fully ripe. Spelt differs from bread wheat in that each seed (a caryopsis, botanically a fruit with its wall fused to the single seed inside) stays fully encapsulated by its husk. [3]

Confusion with other wheats

Especially in the context of descriptions of ancient cultures, the English word spelt has sometimes been used for grains that were not T. spelta, but other species of hulled wheat such as T. dicoccum (emmer wheat) or T. monococcum (einkorn wheat, also known as "little spelt", in French "petit épeautre"). This confusion may arise either from mistranslation of words found in other languages that can denote hulled wheat in general (such as Italian farro , which can denote any of emmer, spelt or einkorn; spelt is sometimes distinguished as farro grande, 'large farro', [4] emmer as farro medio, ('medium farro'), [4] and einkorn as farro piccolo, 'little farro' [5] ), or changing opinions about which actual species of wheat are described in texts written in ancient languages. Thus, the meaning of the ancient Greek word ζειά ([zeiá]) or ζέα is either uncertain or vague, and has been argued to denote einkorn [6] or emmer rather than spelt. [7] Likewise, the ancient Roman grain denoted by the Latin word far, although often translated as 'spelt', was in fact emmer. [8] Similarly, references to the cultivation of spelt wheat in Biblical times in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia are incorrect: they result from confusion with emmer wheat. [9]

Evolution

Hybridisation and polyploidy

Like common wheat, spelt is a hexaploid wheat species, which means it has six sets of chromosomes. It is derived from a hybridisation event between a domesticated tetraploid wheat such as durum wheat and another wheat species, increasing the number of sets of chromosomes. [10] Genetic evidence indicates an initial hybridisation of a domesticated tetraploid wheat and the diploid wild goat-grass Aegilops tauschii . It further shows that spelt could have arisen as the result of a second hybridisation, this time of bread wheat and emmer wheat, giving rise to European spelt. [10] [11] The spelt genome continues to influence the breeding of modern hexaploid bread wheat through recent hybridisation. [12]

Spelt most likely originated as a hybrid of bread wheat and emmer. It continues to influence modern breeds of bread wheat. Spelt origins.svg
Spelt most likely originated as a hybrid of bread wheat and emmer. It continues to influence modern breeds of bread wheat.

Spelt, being closely related to bread wheat, is a likely source of alleles to increase wheat's genetic diversity, and so improve crop yields. Analysis of the Oberkulmer cultivar of spelt found 40 alleles that could contribute to increased yield. Among the differences were spelt's larger grain size, greater fertility of tillers, and longer fruiting spikes. [13] Pm5 is an effector-triggered resistance gene for powdery mildew. [14]

History of cultivation

Without and with husks: the husks make spelt suitable for cold climates. 2009-06-20 Silvolde 02 dinkel.jpg
Without and with husks: the husks make spelt suitable for cold climates.

Spelt has been cultivated since approximately 5000 BCE. In the fifth millennium BCE, there are archaeological remains in the north of Iraq and in Transcaucasia, north-east of the Black Sea. Much more evidence comes from Europe. [16] Remains of spelt have been found in Denmark, Germany, and Poland from the later Neolithic (dating from 2500–1700 BCE). [16] [17] Evidence of spelt has been found from across central Europe from the Bronze Age. In the south of Germany and Switzerland in the Iron Age (750–15 BCE), it was a major type of wheat, while by 500 BCE, it had in addition become widespread in the south of Britain. [16] There is evidence that spelt cultivation increased in Iron Age Britain as damp regions of the country with heavy soils tolerated by spelt were being settled. [18]

In the Middle Ages, spelt was cultivated in parts of Switzerland, Tyrol, Germany, northern France and the southern Low Countries. [19] Spelt became a major crop in Europe in the 9th century CE, possibly because it is more suitable for storage and being husked makes it more adaptable to cold climates. [15]

Spelt was introduced to the United States in the 1890s. In the 20th century, spelt was replaced by bread wheat in almost all areas where it was still grown. The organic farming movement revived its popularity somewhat toward the end of the 20th century, as spelt requires less fertilizer. [20] Since the beginning of the 21st century, spelt has become a common wheat substitute for making artisanal loaves of bread, pasta, and flakes. [21] By 2014, the grain was popular in the UK, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine. Shortages were reported although spelt was grown in those countries. [22]

Nutrition

Spelt, uncooked
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,410 kJ (340 kcal)
70.19 g
Starch 53.92 g
Dietary fibre 10.7 g
Fat
2.43 g
Polyunsaturated 1.258 g
14.57 g
Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins Quantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
30%
0.364 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
9%
0.113 mg
Niacin (B3)
43%
6.843 mg
Vitamin B6
14%
0.230 mg
Folate (B9)
11%
45 μg
Vitamin E
5%
0.79 mg
Minerals Quantity
%DV†
Calcium
2%
27 mg
Iron
25%
4.44 mg
Magnesium
32%
136 mg
Manganese
130%
3.0 mg
Phosphorus
32%
401 mg
Potassium
13%
388 mg
Sodium
0%
8 mg
Zinc
30%
3.28 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water11.02 g
Full USDA Nutrient Report
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [23] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [24]

A 100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving of uncooked spelt provides 1,400 kilojoules (340 kilocalories) of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins, and numerous dietary minerals (table). Highest nutrient contents include manganese (143% DV), phosphorus (57% DV), and niacin (46% DV). Spelt contains about 70% total carbohydrates, including 11% as dietary fibre, and is low in fat (table).

Spelt contains gluten, and is therefore suitable for baking, but this component makes it unsuitable for people with gluten-related disorders, such as celiac disease. [25] In comparison to hard red winter wheat, spelt has a more soluble protein matrix characterized by a higher gliadin:glutenin ratio. [26] [27]

Products

In Germany and Austria, spelt loaves and rolls (dinkelbrot) are widely available in bakeries. [28] The unripe spelt grains are dried and eaten as grünkern ("green grain"). [29] In some countries, spelt may be considered a health food; for example, in Australia it is grown organically for the health food market. [30] Dutch jenever makers sometimes distil with spelt, [31] while beer brewed from spelt exists in Bavaria [32] and Belgium. [33]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wheat</span> Genus of grass cultivated for grain

Wheat is a group of wild and domesticated grasses of the genus Triticum. They are cultivated for their cereal grains, which are staple foods around the world. Well-known wheat species and hybrids include the most widely grown common wheat, spelt, durum, emmer, einkorn, and Khorasan or Kamut. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bread</span> Food made of flour and water

Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cultures' diets. It is one of the oldest human-made foods, having been of significance since the dawn of agriculture, and plays an essential role in both religious rituals and secular culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oat</span> Cool weather staple grain, animal feed

The oat, sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name. Oats appear to have been domesticated as a secondary crop, as their seeds resembled those of other cereals closely enough for them to be included by early cultivators. Oats tolerate cold winters less well than cereals such as wheat, barley, and rye, but need less summer heat and more rain, making them important in areas such as Northwest Europe that have cool wet summers. They can tolerate low-nutrient and acid soils. Oats grow thickly and vigorously, allowing them to outcompete many weeds, and compared to other cereals are relatively free from diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rye</span> Species of grain

Rye is a grass grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop. It is grown principally in an area from Eastern and Northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than other cereals, making it useful in those regions; its vigorous growth suppresses weeds and provides abundant forage for animals early in the year. It is a member of the wheat tribe (Triticeae) which includes the cereals wheat and barley. It is likely that rye arrived in Europe as a secondary crop, meaning that it was a minor admixture in wheat as a result of Vavilovian mimicry, and was only later cultivated in its own right.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Einkorn</span> Primitive wheat

Einkorn wheat is either a wild species of wheat (Triticum) or its domesticated form. The wild form is T. boeoticum, and the domesticated form is T. monococcum. Einkorn is a diploid species of hulled wheat, with tough glumes (husks) that tightly enclose the grains. The cultivated form is similar to the wild, except that the ear stays intact when ripe and the seeds are larger. The domestic form is known as petit épeautre in French, Einkorn in German, "einkorn" or "littlespelt" in English, piccolo farro in Italian and escanda menor in Spanish. The name refers to the fact that each spikelet contains only one grain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triticale</span> Hybrid wheat/rye crop

Triticale is a hybrid of wheat (Triticum) and rye (Secale) first bred in laboratories during the late 19th century in Scotland and Germany. Commercially available triticale is almost always a second-generation hybrid, i.e., a cross between two kinds of primary (first-cross) triticales. As a rule, triticale combines the yield potential and grain quality of wheat with the disease and environmental tolerance of rye. Only recently has it been developed into a commercially viable crop. Depending on the cultivar, triticale can more or less resemble either of its parents. It is grown mostly for forage or fodder, although some triticale-based foods can be purchased at health food stores and can be found in some breakfast cereals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emmer</span> Type of wheat

Emmer is a hybrid species of wheat, producing edible seeds that have been used as food since ancient times. The domesticated types are Triticum turgidum subsp. dicoccum and T. t. conv. durum. The wild plant is called T. t. subsp. dicoccoides. The seeds have an awned covering, the sharp spikes helping the seeds to become buried in the ground. The principal difference between the wild and the domestic forms is that the ripened seed head of the wild plant shatters and scatters the seed onto the ground, while in the domesticated emmer, the seed head remains intact, thus making it easier for people to harvest the grain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Durum wheat</span> Species of wheat used for food

Durum wheat, also called pasta wheat or macaroni wheat, is a tetraploid species of wheat. It is the second most cultivated species of wheat after common wheat, although it represents only 5% to 8% of global wheat production. It was developed by artificial selection of the domesticated emmer wheat strains formerly grown in Central Europe and the Near East around 7000 BC, which developed a naked, free-threshing form. Like emmer, durum wheat is awned. It is the predominant wheat that grows in the Middle East.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Khorasan wheat</span> Species of grass

Khorasan wheat or Oriental wheat is a tetraploid wheat species. The grain is twice the size of modern-day wheat, and has a rich, nutty flavor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Founder crops</span> Original agricultural crops

The founder crops or primary domesticates are a group of flowering plants that were domesticated by early farming communities in Southwest Asia and went on to form the basis of agricultural economies across Eurasia. As originally defined by Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, they consisted of three cereals, four pulses, and flax. Subsequent research has indicated that many other species could be considered founder crops. These species were amongst the first domesticated plants in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whole grain</span> Cereal containing endosperm, germ, and bran

A whole grain is a grain of any cereal and pseudocereal that contains the endosperm, germ, and bran, in contrast to refined grains, which retain only the endosperm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common wheat</span> Species of plant

Common wheat, also known as bread wheat, is a cultivated wheat species. About 95% of wheat produced worldwide is common wheat; it is the most widely grown of all crops and the cereal with the highest monetary yield.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taxonomy of wheat</span> Classification of wheat

During 10,000 years of cultivation, numerous forms of wheat, many of them hybrids, have developed under a combination of artificial and natural selection. This diversity has led to much confusion in the naming of wheats. Genetic and morphological characteristics of wheat influence its classification; many common and botanical names of wheat are in current use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Farro</span> Dried wheat grains


Farro is a grain of any of three species of wheat, namely einkorn, emmer, or spelt, sold dried and cooked in water until soft. It is used as a side dish and added to salads, soups and stews.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triticeae</span> Tribe of grasses

Triticeae is a botanical tribe within the subfamily Pooideae of grasses that includes genera with many domesticated species. Major crop genera found in this tribe include wheat, barley, and rye; crops in other genera include some for human consumption, and others used for animal feed or rangeland protection. Among the world's cultivated species, this tribe has some of the most complex genetic histories. An example is bread wheat, which contains the genomes of three species with only one being a wheat Triticum species. Seed storage proteins in the Triticeae are implicated in various food allergies and intolerances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triticeae glutens</span> Seed storage protein in mature wheat seeds

Gluten is the seed storage protein in mature wheat seeds. It is the sticky substance in bread wheat which allows dough to rise and retain its shape during baking. The same, or very similar, proteins are also found in related grasses within the tribe Triticeae. Seed glutens of some non-Triticeae plants have similar properties, but none can perform on a par with those of the Triticeae taxa, particularly the Triticum species. What distinguishes bread wheat from these other grass seeds is the quantity of these proteins and the level of subcomponents, with bread wheat having the highest protein content and a complex mixture of proteins derived from three grass species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grain</span> Edible dry seed

A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit (caryopsis) – with or without an attached hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. A grain crop is a grain-producing plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and legumes.

Hulled wheat can refer to:

<i>Triticum compactum</i> Species of grass

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient grains</span> Small, hard, dry seeds used as food

Ancient grains is a marketing term used to describe a category of grains and pseudocereals that are purported to have been minimally changed by selective breeding over recent millennia, as opposed to more widespread cereals such as corn, rice and modern varieties of wheat, which are the product of thousands of years of selective breeding. Ancient grains are often marketed as being more nutritious than modern grains, though their health benefits over modern varieties have been disputed by some nutritionists.

References

  1. ↑ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species".
  2. ↑ "Triticum spelta". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 11 December 2017.
  3. ↑ "Triticum spelta L." World Flora Online. 2024. Retrieved 1 November 2024.
  4. 1 2 Buerli, Markus (2006). "Farro in Italy" (PDF). The Global Facilitation Unit for Underutilized Species. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2017– via Bioversity International.
  5. ↑ Cornish, Richard (18 February 2014). "What is the difference between farro, spelt and freekeh?" . The Sydney Morning Herald .
  6. ↑ Austin, Benjamin M. (2019). Plant Metaphors in the Old Greek of Isaiah. SBL Press. p. 191. ISBN   9780884142911.
  7. ↑ ζειά . Liddell, Henry George ; Scott, Robert ; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
  8. ↑ Thompson, D'Arcy W. (1946). "Wheat in Antiquity". The Classical Review . 60 (3): 120–122. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00090387. JSTOR   703297. S2CID   163645029.
  9. ↑ Nesbitt, Mark (2001). "Wheat Evolution: Integrating Archaeological and Biological Evidence" (PDF)..
  10. 1 2 Blatter, R.H.; Jacomet, S.; Schlumbaum, A. (January 2004). "About the Origin of European Spelt (Triticum spelta L.): Allelic Differentiation of the HMW Glutenin B1-1 and A1-2 Subunit Genes" (PDF). Theoretical and Applied Genetics . 108 (2): 360–367. doi:10.1007/s00122-003-1441-7. PMID   14564390. S2CID   26586515.
  11. ↑ De Oliveira, Romain; Rimbert, Hélène; Balfourier, François; Kitt, Jonathan; Dynomant, Emeric; et al. (18 August 2020). "Structural Variations Affecting Genes and Transposable Elements of Chromosome 3B in Wheats". Frontiers in Genetics . 11: 891. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2020.00891 . PMC   7461782 . PMID   33014014.
  12. 1 2 Wang, Yongfa; Wang, Zihao; Chen, Yongming; Lan, Tianyu; Wang, Xiaobo; et al. (2024). "Genomic insights into the origin and evolution of spelt (Triticum spelta L.) as a valuable gene pool for modern wheat breeding". Plant Communications. 5 (5): 100883. Bibcode:2024PlCom...500883W. doi: 10.1016/j.xplc.2024.100883 . PMC   11121738 . PMID   38491771.
  13. ↑ Xie, Quan; Mayes, Sean; Sparkes, Debbie L. (2015). "Spelt as a Genetic Resource for Yield Component Improvement in Bread Wheat". Crop Science. 55 (6): 2753–2765. doi:10.2135/cropsci2014.12.0842. ISSN   0011-183X.
  14. ↑ Cowger, Christina; Brown, James (2019). "Durability of Quantitative Resistance in Crops: Greater Than We Know?". Annual Review of Phytopathology . 57 (1). Annual Reviews: 253–277. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-082718-100016. PMID   31206351. S2CID   190533925.
  15. 1 2 Newfield, Timothy P. (2013). "The Contours, Frequency and Causation of Subsistence Crises in Carolingian Europe (750-950 CE)". Crisis Alimentarian en la Edad Media. Lleida, Spain: Universidad de Lleida. p. 170.
  16. 1 2 3 Cubadda, Raimondo; Marconi, Emanuele (2002). "Spelt Wheat". In Belton, Peter S.; Taylor, John R.N. (eds.). Spelt Wheat in Pseudocereals and Less Common Cereals: Grain Properties and Utilization Potential. Springer. p. 154. ISBN   978-3540429395.
  17. ↑ Akeret, Örni (6 April 2005). "Plant Remains From a Bell Beaker Site in Switzerland, and the Beginnings of Triticum spelta (spelt) Cultivation in Europe". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 14 (4): 279–286. Bibcode:2005VegHA..14..279A. doi:10.1007/s00334-005-0071-1. Archived from the original on 27 December 2012.
  18. ↑ Albarella, Umberto (January 2007). "The end of the Sheep Age: people and animals in the Late Iron Age". In Moore, Elizabeth; Moore, Tom (eds.). The Late Iron Age in Britain and beyond. Oxford: Oxbow Books. pp. 389–402. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1272.5208.
  19. ↑ Bakels, Corrie C. (21 June 2005). "Crops produced in the southern Netherlands and northern France during the early medieval period: a comparison". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 14 (4): 394–399. Bibcode:2005VegHA..14..394B. doi:10.1007/s00334-005-0067-x. ISSN   0939-6314.
  20. ↑ Sugár, Eszter; Fodor, Nándor; Sándor, Renáta; Bónis, Péter; Vida, Gyula; Árendás, Tamás (27 November 2019). "Spelt Wheat: An Alternative for Sustainable Plant Production at Low N-Levels". Sustainability . 11 (23): 6726. doi: 10.3390/su11236726 .
  21. ↑ Smithers, Rebecca (15 May 2014). "Spelt flour 'wonder grain' set for a price hike as supplies run low". The Guardian . Retrieved 30 January 2017.
  22. ↑ "Spelt shortage" . The Independent . 11 May 2014. Archived from the original on 24 May 2022.
  23. ↑ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
  24. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154 . Retrieved 5 December 2024.
  25. ↑ Wieser, H. (2001). "Comparative Investigations of Gluten Proteins from Different Wheat Species". European Food Research and Technology. 213 (3): 183–186. doi:10.1007/s002170100365. S2CID   84523520.
  26. ↑ Schober, T.J.; Bean, S.R.; Kuhn, M. (2006). "Gluten Proteins from Spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) Cultivars: A Rheological and Size-Exclusion High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Study". Journal of Cereal Science. 44 (2): 161–173. doi:10.1016/j.jcs.2006.05.007. Archived from the original (pdf) on 31 May 2023. Retrieved 21 November 2013.
  27. ↑ Kohajdová, Z.; Karovičová, J. (2008). "Nutritional Value and Baking Applications of Spelt Wheat" (PDF). Acta Scientiarum Polonorum. Technologia Alimentaria. 7 (3): 5–14. Retrieved 21 November 2013.
  28. ↑ Nesbitt, Mark (2004). "Grains". The Cultural History of Plants. Routledge. pp. 45–61. ISBN   0-203-02090-1.
  29. ↑ Berihuete-Azorín, Marian; Stika, Hans-Peter; Hallama, Moritz; Valamoti, Soultana Maria (17 April 2020). "Distinguishing ripe spelt from processed green spelt (Grünkern) grains: Methodological aspects and the case of early La Tène Hochdorf". Journal of Archaeological Science. 118. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2020.105143 . S2CID   218786504.
  30. ↑ Neeson, R., et al. "Optimising the quality and yield of spelt under organic production in SE Australia". 14th Australian Agronomy Conference. The Regional Institute, 2008.
  31. ↑ Peragine, John N. (30 November 2010). The Complete Guide to Growing Your Own Hops, Malts, and Brewing Herbs. Atlantic Publishing Company. p. 128. ISBN   9781601383532 . Retrieved 1 September 2012.
  32. ↑ "Dinkelbier". German Beer Institute. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
  33. ↑ "Den Mulder". Huisbrouwerij Den Tseut (in Dutch). Oosteeklo. Archived from the original on 17 October 2015.
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