Common Era

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Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the original Anno Domini (AD) and Before Christ (BC) notations used for the same calendar era. The two notation systems are numerically equivalent: "2024 CE" and "AD 2024" each describe the current year; "400 BCE" and "400 BC" are the same year. [1] [2]

Contents

The expression can be traced back to 1615, when it first appears in a book by Johannes Kepler as the Latin : annus aerae nostrae vulgaris (year of our common era), [3] [4] and to 1635 in English as "Vulgar Era". [lower-alpha 1] The term "Common Era" can be found in English as early as 1708, [5] and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish religious scholars. Since the late 20th century, BCE and CE have become popular in academic and scientific publications on the grounds that BCE and CE are religiously neutral terms. [6] [7] [lower-alpha 2] They have been promoted as more sensitive to non-Christians by not referring to Jesus, the central figure of Christianity, especially via the religious terms "Christ" and Dominus ("Lord") utilized by the other abbreviations. [8] [9] [lower-alpha 3]

History

Origins

The idea of numbering years beginning from the date he believed to be the date of birth of Jesus, was conceived around the year 525 by the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus. He did this to replace the then dominant Era of Martyrs system, because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. [11] :50 He numbered years from an initial reference date ("epoch"), an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus. [11] [12] [13] Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as "Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi" [Year of our Lord Jesus Christ]. [11] :52

This way of numbering years became more widespread in Europe with its use by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, [lower-alpha 4] without a year zero. [lower-alpha 5] In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. [15]

Vulgar Era

Johannes Kepler 1571-1630, the German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and writer on music. JKepler.jpg
Johannes Kepler 15711630, the German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and writer on music.

The term "Common Era" is traced back in English to its appearance as "Vulgar Era" to distinguish dates on the Gregorian calendar which was in popular use from dates of the regnal year (the year of the reign of a sovereign) typically used in national law. (The word 'vulgar' originally meant 'of the ordinary people', with no derogatory associations. [17] )

The first use of the Latin term anno aerae nostrae vulgaris [lower-alpha 6] may be that in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler. [4] Kepler uses it again, as ab Anno vulgaris aerae, in a 1616 table of ephemerides, [18] and again, as ab anno vulgaris aerae, in 1617. [19] A 1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English that may be the earliest-found use of Vulgar Era in English. [20] [lower-alpha 7] A 1701 book edited by John Le Clerc includes the phrase "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra, 6". [21]

The Merriam Webster Dictionary gives 1716 as being the date of first use of the term "vulgar era" (to mean Christian era). [22] [lower-alpha 8]

The first published use of "Christian Era" may be the Latin phrase annus aerae christianae on the title page of a 1584 theology book, De Eucharistica controuersia. [24] In 1649, the Latin phrase annus æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac. [25] A 1652 ephemeris may be the first instance found so far of the English use of "Christian Era". [26]

The English phrase "Common Era" appears at least as early as 1708, [5] and in a 1715 book on astronomy it is used interchangeably with "Christian Era" and "Vulgar Era". [27] A 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to "the common era of the Jews". [28] The first use of the phrase "before the common era" may be that in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms, in a translation of a book originally written in German. [29] The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era and common era synonymously. [30] [31] In 1835, in his book Living Oracles , Alexander Campbell, wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days", [32] and also refers to the common era as a synonym for vulgar era with "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era". [33] The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909) in at least one article reports all three terms (Christian, Vulgar, Common Era) being commonly understood by the early 20th century. [34]

The phrase "common era", in lower case, also appeared in the 19th century in a 'generic' sense, not necessarily to refer to the Christian Era, but to any system of dates in common use throughout a civilization. Thus, "the common era of the Jews", [35] [36] "the common era of the Mahometans", [37] "common era of the world", [38] "the common era of the foundation of Rome". [39] When it did refer to the Christian Era, it was sometimes qualified, e.g., "common era of the Incarnation", [40] "common era of the Nativity", [41] or "common era of the birth of Christ". [42]

An adapted translation of Common Era into Latin as Era Vulgaris [lower-alpha 9] was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of Aleister Crowley, and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD. [44]

History of the use of the CE/BCE abbreviation

Although Jews have their own Hebrew calendar, they often use the Gregorian calendar without the AD prefix. [45] As early as 1825, the abbreviation VE (for Vulgar Era) was in use among Jews to denote years in the Western calendar. [46] As of 2005, Common Era notation has also been in use for Hebrew lessons for more than a century. [47] Jews have also used the term Current Era. [48]

Contemporary usage

Some academics in the fields of theology, education, archaeology and history have adopted CE and BCE notation despite some disagreement. [49] Several style guides now prefer or mandate its use. [50] A study conducted in 2014 found that the BCE/CE notation is not growing at the expense of BC and AD notation in the scholarly literature, and that both notations are used in a relatively stable fashion. [51]

United Kingdom

In 2002, an advisory panel for the religious education syllabus for England and Wales recommended introducing BCE/CE dates to schools, [52] and by 2018 some local education authorities were using them. [53]

In 2018, the National Trust said it would continue to use BC/AD as its house style. [53] English Heritage explains its era policy thus: "It might seem strange to use a Christian calendar system when referring to British prehistory, but the BC/AD labels are widely used and understood." [54] Some parts of the BBC use BCE/CE, but some presenters have said they will not. [53] As of October 2019, the BBC News style guide has entries for AD and BC, but not for CE or BCE. [55] The style guide for The Guardian says, under the entry for CE/BCE: "some people prefer CE (common era, current era, or Christian era) and BCE (before common era, etc.) to AD and BC, which, however, remain our style". [56]

United States

In the United States, the use of the BCE/CE notation in textbooks was reported in 2005 to be growing. [47] Some publications have transitioned to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 World Almanac was the first edition to switch to BCE/CE, ending a period of 138 years in which the traditional BC/AD dating notation was used. BCE/CE is used by the College Board in its history tests, [57] and by the Norton Anthology of English Literature. Others have taken a different approach. The US-based History Channel uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as Jerusalem and Judaism. [58] The 2006 style guide for the Episcopal Diocese Maryland Church News says that BCE and CE should be used. [59]

In June 2006, in the United States, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its decision to use BCE and CE in the state's new Program of Studies, leaving education of students about these concepts a matter of local discretion. [60] [61] [62]

Australia

In 2011, media reports suggested that the BC/AD notation in Australian school textbooks would be replaced by BCE/CE notation. [63] The change drew opposition from some politicians and church leaders. Weeks after the story broke, the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority denied the rumours and stated that the BC/AD notation would remain, with CE and BCE as an optional suggested learning activity. [64]

Canada

In 2013, the Canadian Museum of Civilization (now the Canadian Museum of History) in Gatineau (opposite Ottawa), which had previously switched to BCE/CE, decided to change back to BC/AD in material intended for the public while retaining BCE/CE in academic content. [65]

Rationales

Support

The use of CE in Jewish scholarship was historically motivated by the desire to avoid the implicit "Our Lord" in the abbreviation AD. Although other aspects of dating systems are based in Christian origins, AD is a direct reference to Jesus as Lord. [66] [67] [68]

Proponents of the Common Era notation assert that the use of BCE/CE shows sensitivity to those who use the same year numbering system as the one that originated with and is currently used by Christians, but who are not themselves Christian. [69]

Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan [70] has argued:

[T]he Christian calendar no longer belongs exclusively to Christians. People of all faiths have taken to using it simply as a matter of convenience. There is so much interaction between people of different faiths and cultures – different civilizations, if you like – that some shared way of reckoning time is a necessity. And so the Christian Era has become the Common Era. [71]

Adena K. Berkowitz, in her application to argue before the United States Supreme Court, opted to use BCE and CE because "Given the multicultural society that we live in, the traditional Jewish designations B.C.E. and C.E.  cast a wider net of inclusion". [72]

"Non-Christian scholars, especially, embraced [CE and BCE] because they could now communicate more easily with the Christian community. Jewish, Islamic, Hindu and Buddhist scholars could retain their [own] calendar but refer to events using the Gregorian Calendar as BCE and CE without compromising their own beliefs about the divinity of Jesus of Nazareth". [73] [68]

Opposition

Some critics often note the fact that there is no difference in the epoch of the two systems, a moment about four to seven years after the date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth. BCE and CE are still aligned with BC and AD, which denote the periods before and after Jesus was born. [74]

Some Christians are offended by the removal of the reference to Jesus in the Common Era notation. [75] The Southern Baptist Convention supports retaining the BC/AD abbreviations. [76]

Roman Catholic priest and writer on interfaith issues Raimon Panikkar argued that the BCE/CE usage is the less inclusive option, since they are still using the Christian calendar numbers, forcing it on other nations. [77] In 1993, the English-language expert Kenneth G. Wilson speculated a slippery slope scenario in his style guide that "if we do end by casting aside the AD/BC convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system [that is, the method of numbering years] itself, given its Christian basis." [78]

Conventions in style guides

The abbreviation BCE, just as with BC, always follows the year number. Unlike AD, which still often precedes the year number, CE always follows the year number (if context requires that it be written at all). [79] Thus, the current year is written as 2024 in both notations (or, if further clarity is needed, as 2024 CE, or as AD 2024), and the year that Socrates died is represented as 399 BCE (the same year that is represented by 399 BC in the BC/AD notation). The abbreviations are sometimes written with small capital letters, or with periods (e.g., "B.C.E." or "C.E."). [80] The US-based Society of Biblical Literature style guide for academic texts on religion prefers BCE/CE to BC/AD. [81]

Similar conventions in other languages

See also

Notes

  1. From the Latin word vulgus , the common people  to contrast it with the regnal year system of dating used by the Government.
  2. Two other systems that also do not use religious titles, the astronomical system and the ISO 8601 standard, do use a year zero. The year 1 BCE (identical to the year 1 BC) is represented as 0 in the astronomical system, and as 0000 in ISO 8601. Presently, ISO 8601 dating requires use of the Gregorian calendar for all dates, however, whereas astronomical dating and Common Era dating allow use of either the Gregorian or Julian calendars.
  3. AD is shortened from anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi ("in the year of Our Lord Jesus Christ"). [10]
  4. Bede wrote of the Incarnation of Jesus, but treated it as synonymous with birth. [14]
  5. As noted in History of the zero, the use of zero in Western civilization was uncommon before the twelfth century.
  6. In Latin, 'Common Era' is written as Aera Vulgaris. It also occasionally appears, in Latin declination, as æræ vulgaris, aerae vulgaris, aeram vulgarem, anni vulgaris, vulgaris aerae Christianae, and anni vulgatae nostrae aerae Christianas.
  7. As England did not adopt the Gregorian calendar until 1752, "vulgar" dates were determined according to the Julian calendar
  8. The probable source is a 1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux which refers to, "...the vulgar Æra of Christ's incarnation and not from the true time of it." [23] This citation is given in the 1933 edition of Oxford English Dictionary but without any assertion of first use. [17]
  9. era  or, with a macron, ēra  being an alternative form of aera; aera is the usual form [43]

Related Research Articles

<i>Anno Domini</i> Western calendar era

The terms anno Domini (AD) and before Christ (BC) are used when designating years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means "in the year of the Lord" but is often presented using "our Lord" instead of "the Lord", taken from the full original phrase "anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi", which translates to "in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ". The form "BC" is specific to English, and equivalent abbreviations are used in other languages: the Latin form, rarely used in English, is Ante Christum natum (ACN) or Ante Christum (AC).

Astronomical year numbering is based on AD/CE year numbering, but follows normal decimal integer numbering more strictly. Thus, it has a year 0; the years before that are designated with negative numbers and the years after that are designated with positive numbers. Astronomers use the Julian calendar for years before 1582, including the year 0, and the Gregorian calendar for years after 1582, as exemplified by Jacques Cassini (1740), Simon Newcomb (1898) and Fred Espenak (2007).

<i>Ab urbe condita</i> Ancient Roman calendar era

Ab urbe condita, or anno urbis conditae, abbreviated as AUC or AVC, expresses a date in years since 753 BC, the traditional founding of Rome. It is an expression used in antiquity and by classical historians to refer to a given year in Ancient Rome. In reference to the traditional year of the foundation of Rome, the year 1 BC would be written AUC 753, whereas AD 1 would be AUC 754. The foundation of the Roman Empire in 27 BC would be AUC 727. The current year AD 2024 would be AUC 2777.

An era is a span of time defined for the purposes of chronology or historiography, as in the regnal eras in the history of a given monarchy, a calendar era used for a given calendar, or the geological eras defined for the history of Earth.

AD 1 or 1 CE(I) is the epoch year for the Anno Domini (AD) Christian calendar era, and the 1st year of the 1st century and 1st millennium of the Christian and Common Era (CE). It was a common year starting on Saturday or Sunday, a common year starting on Saturday by the proleptic Julian calendar, and a common year starting on Monday by the proleptic Gregorian calendar.

The proleptic Julian calendar is produced by extending the Julian calendar backwards to dates preceding AD 8 when the quadrennial leap year stabilized. The leap years that were actually observed between the implementation of the Julian calendar in 45 BC and AD 8 were erratic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">300 BC</span> Calendar year

Year 300 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Corvus and Pansa. The denomination 300 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. B.C.E is the abbreviation for before the Common/Current/Christian Era.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dionysius Exiguus</span> Byzantine saint (c. 470 – c. 544)

Dionysius Exiguus was a 6th-century Eastern Roman monk born in Scythia Minor. He was a member of a community of Scythian monks concentrated in Tomis, the major city of Scythia Minor. Dionysius is best known as the inventor of Anno Domini (AD) dating, which is used to number the years of both the Gregorian calendar and the (Christianised) Julian calendar. Almost all churches adopted his computus for the dates of Easter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thai solar calendar</span> Legal calendar in Thailand

The Thai solar calendar was adopted by King Chulalongkorn in 1888 CE as the Siamese version of the Gregorian calendar, replacing the Thai lunar calendar as the legal calendar in Thailand. Years are now counted in the Buddhist Era (B.E.): พุทธศักราช, พ.ศ.RTGS: Phutthasakkarat which is 543 years ahead of the Gregorian calendar.

A calendar era is the period of time elapsed since one epoch of a calendar and, if it exists, before the next one. For example, it is the year 2024 as per the Gregorian calendar, which numbers its years in the Western Christian era.

The Era of the Martyrs, also known as the Diocletian era, is a method of numbering years based on the reign of Roman Emperor Diocletian who instigated the last major persecution against Christians in the Empire. It was used by the Church of Alexandria beginning in the 4th century AD and it has been used by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria from the 5th century until the present. This era was used to number the year in Easter tables produced by the Church of Alexandria.

<i>Anno Mundi</i> Calendar era based on the biblical account of creation

Anno Mundi, abbreviated as AM or A.M., or Year After Creation, is a calendar era based on the biblical accounts of the creation of the world and subsequent history. Two such calendar eras have seen notable use historically:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seleucid era</span> Calendar era used during Hellenistic period

The Seleucid era ("SE") or Anno Graecorum, sometimes denoted "AG," was a system of numbering years in use by the Seleucid Empire and other countries among the ancient Hellenistic civilizations, and later by the Parthians. It is sometimes referred to as "the dominion of the Seleucidæ," or the Year of Alexander. The era dates from Seleucus I Nicator's reconquest of Babylon in 312/11 BC after his exile in Ptolemaic Egypt, considered by Seleucus and his court to mark the founding of the Seleucid Empire. According to Jewish tradition, it was during the sixth year of Alexander the Great's reign that they began to make use of this counting. The introduction of the new era is mentioned in one of the Babylonian Chronicles, the Chronicle of the Diadochi.

The term ante Christum natum, usually abbreviated to a. Chr. n., a.Ch.n., a.C.n., A.C.N., or ACN, denotes the years before the birth of Jesus Christ. It is a Latin equivalent to the English "BC". The phrase ante Christum natum is also seen shortened to ante Christum, similarly abbreviated to a. Chr., A. C. or AC. A related phrase, p. Chr. n., p. Ch. n., or post Christum natum complements a. Ch. n. and is equivalent to Anno Domini (AD).

The Holocene calendar, also known as the Holocene Era or Human Era (HE), is a year numbering system that adds exactly 10,000 years to the currently dominant numbering scheme, placing its first year near the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch and the Neolithic Revolution, when humans shifted from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to agriculture and fixed settlements. The current year by the Gregorian calendar, AD 2024, is 12024 HE in the Holocene calendar. The HE scheme was first proposed by Cesare Emiliani in 1993, though similar proposals to start a new calendar at the same date had been put forward decades earlier.

A year zero does not exist in the Anno Domini (AD) calendar year system commonly used to number years in the Gregorian calendar ; in this system, the year 1 BC is followed directly by year AD 1. However, there is a year zero in both the astronomical year numbering system, and the ISO 8601:2004 system, the interchange standard for all calendar numbering systems. There is also a year zero in most Buddhist and Hindu calendars.

The Spanish era, sometimes called the era of Caesar, was a calendar era commonly used in the states of the Iberian Peninsula from the 5th century until the 15th, when it was phased out in favour of the Anno Domini (AD) system. The epoch of the Spanish era was 1 January 38 BC. To convert an Anno Domini date to the corresponding year in the Spanish era, add 38 to the Anno Domini year, such that Era 941 would be equivalent to AD 903. A date given in the Spanish era always uses the word era followed by a feminine ordinal number. This contrasts with the AD system that uses the masculine anno (year): i.e., era millesima octava versus anno millesimo octavo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Byzantine calendar</span> Orthodox calendar used c. 691–1728

The Byzantine calendar, also called the Roman calendar, the Creation Era of Constantinople or the Era of the World, was the calendar used by the Eastern Orthodox Church from c. 691 to 1728 in the Ecumenical Patriarchate. It was also the official calendar of the Byzantine Empire from 988 to 1453 and of Kievan Rus' and Russia from c. 988 to 1700. This calendar was used also in other areas of the Byzantine commonwealth such as in Serbia, where it is found in old Serbian legal documents such as Dušan's Code, thus being referred to as the Serbian Calendar as well.

The Sardica paschal table or Sardica document is a document from a Latin manuscript of the 7th/8th century AD. It is a copy in Latin translation of the creed of the Eastern Christian bishops attending the Council of Sardica who, fearing that their deliberations would be dominated by Western bishops, met separately at Philippopolis. Appended to the creed and anathemas is a table of Paschal full moon dates, given as dates in the Julian calendar, for the years 328 to 357, together with a list of dates of 14 Nisan in the Jewish calendar, also referred to the Julian calendar, for the years 328 to 343, the year of the Council. The calendrical information contained in the document has been used by scholars in tracing the history of the computus and of the Hebrew calendar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Date of the birth of Jesus</span> Variety of proposed dates for the birth of Jesus

The date of the birth of Jesus is not stated in the gospels or in any historical sources and the evidence is too incomplete to allow for consistent dating. However, most biblical scholars and ancient historians believe that his birth date is around 4 to 6 BC. Two main approaches have been used to estimate the year of the birth of Jesus: one based on the accounts in the Gospels of his birth with reference to King Herod's reign, and the other by subtracting his stated age of "about 30 years" when he began preaching.

References

  1. "Anno Domini". Merriam Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. 2003. Retrieved 4 October 2011. Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of the Lord
  2. "Controversy over the use of the "CE/BCE" and "AD/BC" dating notation/". Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
  3. Coolman, Robert. "Keeping Time: The Origin of B.C. & A.D." Live Science. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
  4. 1 2 Johannes Kepler (1615). Joannis Keppleri Eclogae chronicae: (etc) (in Latin). Frankfurt: Tampach. OCLC   62188677. Dabam Pragae Idibus Aprilibus, Anno vulgaris aerae MDCXII (Earliest-found use of "vulgaris aerae", Latin for Common Era) (1615)
  5. 1 2 The History of the Works of the Learned. Vol. 10. London. January 1708. p.  513. ... to the fourth century of the Common Era (Possibly the first use of common era in English (1708))
  6. Espenak, Fred (25 February 2008). "Year dating conventions". NASA . Retrieved 24 August 2021.
  7. "BC and AD vs. BCE and CE: How to Use Correctly". The Editor's Manual. 31 May 2021. Retrieved 24 August 2021.
  8. Herrmann, Andrew (27 May 2006). "BCE date designation called more sensitive". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2016. The changes – showing up at museums, in academic circles and in school textbooks – have been touted as more sensitive to people of faiths outside of Christianity. ... The use of BCE and CE have rankled some Christians
  9. McKim, Donald K (1996). "C. E.". Westminster dictionary of theological terms. Westminster John Knox Press. p.  41. ISBN   978-0-664-25511-4.
  10. Irvin, Dale T.; Sunquist, Scott (2001). History of the World Christian Movement. Continuum International Publishing Group. p.  xi. ISBN   0-567-08866-9. The influence of western culture and scholarship upon the rest of the world in turn led to this system of dating becoming the most widely used one across the globe today. Many scholars in historical and religious studies in the West in recent years have sought to lessen the explicitly Christian meaning of this system without abandoning the usefulness of a single, common, global form of dating. For this reason the terms common era and before the common era, abbreviated as CE and BCE, have grown in popularity as designations. The terms are meant, in deference to non-Christians, to soften the explicit theological claims made by the older Latin terminology, while at the same time providing continuity with earlier generations of mostly western Christian historical research
  11. 1 2 3 Pedersen, O. (1983). "The Ecclesiastical Calendar and the Life of the Church". In Coyne, G.V.; et al. (eds.). Gregorian Reform of the Calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican Conference to commemorate its 400th anniversary. Vatican Observatory. p.  50 . Retrieved 18 May 2011 via SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS).
  12. Doggett, L.E., (1992), "Calendars" in Seidelmann, P.K., The Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, Sausalito CA: University Science Books, 2.1
  13. Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p.  686. ISBN   978-0-8028-3781-3.
  14. Blackburn, B & Holford-Strevens, L, (2003), The Oxford Companion to the Year, Oxford University Press, 778.
  15. "General Chronology". New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. III. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1908.
  16. Jeans, Susi (2013) [2001]. "Kepler [Keppler], Johannes" . Grove Music Online . Revised by H. Floris Cohen. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14903. ISBN   978-1-56159-263-0 . Retrieved 26 September 2021.(subscription or UK public library membership required)
  17. 1 2 "Vulgar". Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. 12. 1933. p. 326.
  18. Kepler, Johann (1616). Ephemerides novae motuum caelestium, ab Ānno vulgaris aerae MDCXVII en observationibus potissimum Tychonis Brahei hypothesibus physicis, et tabulis Rudolphinis... Plancus.
  19. Keppler, Johannes; Bartsch, Jakob (1617). Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium, ab anno vulgaris aerae MDCXVII[-XXXVI]...[(per 1635 English edition): New Ephemerids for the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeeres of the Vulgar Era 1617–1636]. Johannes Plancus. Part 3 has title: Tomi L Ephemeridvm Ioannis Kepleri pars tertia, complexa annos à M.DC.XXIX. in M.DC.XXXVI. In quibus & tabb. Rudolphi jam perfectis, et sociâ operâ clariss. viri dn. Iacobi Bartschii ... Impressa Sagani Silesiorvm, in typographeio Ducali, svmptibvs avthoris, anno M.DC.XXX. (His third use of "vulgaris aerae" (Latin for Common Era) (1617))
  20. Johann Kepler; Adriaan Vlacq (1635). Ephemerides of the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeers of the Vulgar Era 1633 ...
  21. Le Clerc, John, ed. (1701). The Harmony of the Evangelists. London: Sam Buckley. p.  5. Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra, 6
  22. "Merriam Webster Online entry for Vulgar Era" . Retrieved 18 May 2011.
  23. Humphrey Prideaux, D.D. (1716). The Old and New Testament Connected in the History of the Jews and Neighbouring Nations. Vol. 1 (Second ed.). London. p.  ii.
  24. Clivaz, Claire (2012). "Common Era 2.0". Lire demain; Reading tomorrow. EPFL Press. p.  38. ISBN   9782889141494. ... the expression "Christian era" appears in Latin in a 1584 theology book (Grynaeus and Beumler 1584)
  25. WING, Vincent (1649). Speculum uranicum, anni æræ Christianæ, 1649, or, An almanack and prognosication for the year of our Lord, 1649 being the first from bissextile or leap-year, and from the creation of the world 5598, wherein is contained many useful, pleasant and necessary observations, and predictions ... : calculated (according to art) for the meridian and latitude of the ancient borough town of Stamford in Lincolnshire ... and without sensible errour may serve the 3. kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. London: J.L. for the Company of Stationers. anni æræ Christianæ, 1649
  26. Sliter, Robert (1652). A celestiall glasse, or, Ephemeris for the year of the Christian era 1652 being the bissextile or leap-year: contayning the lunations, planetary motions, configurations & ecclipses for this present year ... : with many other things very delightfull and necessary for most sorts of men: calculated exactly and composed for ... Rochester. London: Printed for the Company of Stationers.
  27. Gregory, David; John Nicholson; John Morphew (1715). The Elements of Astronomy, Physical and Geometrical. Vol. 1. London: J. Nicholson. p.  252. Some say the World was created 3950 Years before the common Æra of ChristBefore Christ and Christian Era appear on the same page 252, while Vulgar Era appears on page 250
  28. Sale, George; Psalmanazar, George; Bower, Archibald; Shelvocke, George; Campbell, John; Swinton, John (1759). An Universal History: From the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time. Vol. 13. London: C. Bathurst [etc.] p.  130. And it doth not appear, that they began to reckon from the creation till after their Gemarrah was finished;at which time they fixed that for their common era [In this case, their refers to the Jews.]
  29. Hooper, William; Bielfeld, Jacob Friedrich (1770). The Elements of Universal Erudition: Containing an Analytical Abridgment of the Sciences, Polite Arts, and Belles Lettres. Vol. 3. London: J Robson and B. Law. pp.  63, 105. The Spanish era began with the year of the world 3966, and 38 years before the common era (p63); 1796 years before the common era [...] 776 before the vulgar era. (p105) [Possibly the first English use of "before the common era", with "vulgar era" synonymous with "common era" (1770)]
  30. MacFarquhar, Colin; Gleig, George (1797). "Peter". Encyclopædia Britannica. A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar. p.  228. St Peter died in the 66th year of the vulgar era
  31. MacFarquhar, Colin; Gleig, George (1797). "Paul". Encyclopædia Britannica. A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar. p.  50. This happened in the 33rd year of the common era, some time after our Saviour's death.
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  34. "General Chronology". Catholic Encyclopedia. Foremost among these [various eras] is that which is now adopted by all civilized peoples and known as the Christian, Vulgar or Common Era, in the twentieth century of which we are now living.
  35. A. Whitelaw, ed. (1874). "Epoch". Popular Encyclopedia or Conversations Lexicon. Vol. V. Oxford University Press. p. 207. the common era of the Jews places the creation in BC 3760
  36. The first and second Advent: or, The past and the future with reference to the Jew, the gentile, and the Church of God. Wertheim, MacIntosh & Hunt. 1858. p.  176. Hence the present year, 1858, in the common era of the Jews, is AM 5618–5619, a difference of more than 200 years from our commonly-received chronology.
  37. Gumpach, Johannes von (1856). Practical tables for the reduction of Mahometan dates to the Christian calendar. Oxford University Press. p.  4. Its epoch is the first of March old style. The common era of the Mahometans, as has already been stated, is that of the flight of Mahomet.
  38. Jones, William (1801). The Theological, Philosophical and Miscellaneous Works of the Rev. William Jones. London: Rivington. p.  354.
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  41. Todd, James Henthorn (1864). St. Patrick, Apostle of Ireland, A Memoir of his Life and Mission. Dublin: Hodges, Smith & Co. pp.  –497. It should be observed, however, that these years correspond to 492 and 493, a portion of the annals of Ulster being counted from the Incarnation, and being, therefore, one year before the common era of the Nativity of our Lord.
  42. Heneage Elsley (1812). Annotations on the Four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles (2nd ed.). London: T. Payne. xvi.
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  45. Tracey R Rich. "Judaism 101" . Retrieved 18 May 2011. Jews do not generally use the words 'A.D.' and 'B.C.' to refer to the years on the Gregorian calendar. 'A.D.' means 'the year of our L-rd,' and we do not believe Jesus is the L-rd. Instead, we use the abbreviations C.E. (Common or Christian Era) and B.C.E. (Before the Common Era).
  46. "Plymouth, England Tombstone inscriptions". Jewish Communities & Records. Retrieved 18 May 2011. Here is buried his honour Judah ben his honour Joseph, a prince and honoured amongst philanthropists, who executed good deeds, died in his house in the City of Bath, Tuesday, and was buried here on Sunday, 19 Sivan in the year 5585. In memory of Lyon Joseph Esq (merchant of Falmouth, Cornwall). who died at Bath June AM 5585/VE 1825. Beloved and respected.[19 Sivan 5585 AM is 5 June 1825. VE is likely an abbreviation for Vulgar Era.]
  47. 1 2 Gormley, Michael (24 April 2005). "Use of B.C. and A.D. faces changing times". Houston Chronicle . p. A–13. Retrieved 18 May 2011.
  48. BBC Team (8 February 2005). "History of Judaism 63 BCE – 1086 CE". BBC Religion & Ethics. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
  49. See, for example, the Society for Historical Archaeology states in its more recent style guide "Do not use CE (common era), BP (before present), or BCE; convert these expressions to AD and BC." (In section I 5 the Society explains how to use "years BP" in connection with radiocarbon ages.) Society for Historical Archaeology (December 2006). "Style Guide" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 April 2016. Retrieved 16 January 2017. whereas the American Anthropological Association style guide takes a different approach, supporting the use of "CE" and "BCE." American Anthropological Society (2009). "AAA Style Guide" (PDF). p. 3. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
  50. "Submission Guidelines for The Ostracon". The Ostracon – Journal of the Egyptian Studies Society. Archived from the original on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2011. For dates, please use the now-standard 'BCE–CE' notation, rather than 'BC–AD.' Authors with strong religious preferences may use 'BC–AD,' however.
  51. Cavacini, A. (2015). "Is the CE/BCE notation becoming a standard in scholarly literature?". Scientometrics. 102 (2): 1661–1668. doi:10.1007/s11192-014-1352-1. S2CID   255011561.
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  67. Michael McDowell; Nathan Robert Brown (2009). World Religions At Your Fingertips. Penguin. p. 38. ISBN   978-1-101-01469-1. Marked by the turn of the Common Era, C.E., originally referred to as A.D., an abbreviation of the Latin Anno Domini, meaning 'Year of our God/Lord.' This was a shortening of Anno Domini Nostri Jesu Christi, meaning 'Year of our God/Lord Jesus Christ.'
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  76. "On Retaining The Traditional Method Of Calendar Dating (B.C./A.D.)". Southern Baptist Convention. June 2000. Retrieved 18 May 2011. This practice [of BCE/CE] is the result of the secularization, anti-supernaturalism, religious pluralism, and political correctness pervasive in our society ... retention [of BC/AD] is a reminder to those in this secular age of the importance of Christ's life and mission and emphasizes to all that history is ultimately His Story.
  77. Panikkar, Raimon (2004). Christophany: The Fullness of Man. Maryville, NY: Orbis Books. p. 173. ISBN   978-1-57075-564-4. To call our age 'the Common Era,' even though for the Jews, the Chinese, the Tamil, the Muslims, and many others it is not a common era, constitutes the acme of colonialism.
  78. Wilson, Kenneth G. (16 December 1993). The Columbia Guide to Standard American English – A.D., B.C., (A.)C.E., B.C.E. Columbia University Press. ISBN   978-0-231-06989-2. A.D. appears either before or after the number of the year ... although conservative use has long preferred before only; B.C. always follows the number of the year. ... Common era (C.E.) itself needs a good deal of further justification, in view of its clearly Christian numbering. Most conservatives still prefer A.D. and B.C. Best advice: don't use B.C.E., C.E., or A.C.E. to replace B.C. and A.D. without translating the new terms for the very large number of readers who will not understand them. Note too that if we do end by casting aside the A.D./B.C. convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system itself, given its Christian basis.
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