Eternal return

Last updated

Eternal return (or eternal recurrence) is a philosophical concept which states that time repeats itself in an infinite loop, and that exactly the same events will continue to occur in exactly the same way, over and over again, for eternity.

Contents

In ancient Greece, the concept of eternal return was most prominently associated with Stoicism, the school of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium. The Stoics believed that the universe is periodically destroyed and reborn, and that each universe is exactly the same as the one before. This doctrine was fiercely criticised by Christian authors such as Augustine, who saw in it a fundamental denial of free will and of the possibility of salvation. The global spread of Christianity therefore brought an end to classical theories of eternal return.

The concept was revived in the 19th century by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Having briefly presented the idea as a thought experiment in The Gay Science , he explored it more thoroughly in his novel Thus Spoke Zarathustra , in which the protagonist learns to overcome his horror of the thought of eternal return. It is not known whether Nietzsche believed in the literal truth of eternal return, or, if he did not, what he intended to demonstrate by it.

Nietzsche's ideas were subsequently taken up and re-interpreted by other writers, such as Russian esotericist P. D. Ouspensky, who argued that it was possible to break the cycle of return.

Classical antiquity

Pythagoreanism

There are hints in ancient writings that the theory of eternal return may have originated with Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BC). According to Porphyry, it was one of the teachings of Pythagoras that "after certain specified periods, the same events occur again" and that "nothing was entirely new". [1] Eudemus of Rhodes also references this Pythagorean doctrine in his commentary on Aristotle's Physics . In a fragment preserved by Simplicius, Eudemus writes: [2]

One might raise the problem whether the same time recurs, as some say, or not. "The same" has many senses: the same in form seems to occur as do spring and winter and the other seasons and periods; similarly the same changes occur in form, for the sun performs its solstices and equinoxes and its other journeys. But if someone were to believe the Pythagoreans that numerically the same things recur, then I also will romance, holding my staff, while you sit there, and everything else will be the same, and it is plausible to say that the time will be the same.

Stoicism

The Stoics, possibly inspired by the Pythagoreans, [3] incorporated the theory of eternal recurrence into their natural philosophy. According to Stoic physics, the universe is periodically destroyed in an immense conflagration ( ekpyrosis ), and then experiences a rebirth ( palingenesis ). These cycles continue for eternity, and the same events are exactly repeated in every cycle. [4] The Stoics may have found support for this doctrine in the concept of the Great Year, [5] the oldest known expression of which is found in Plato's Timaeus . Plato hypothesised that one complete cycle of time would be fulfilled when the sun, moon and planets all completed their various circuits and returned to their original positions. [6]

Sources differ as to whether the Stoics believed that the contents of each new universe would be one and the same with those of the previous universe, or only so similar as to be indistinguishable. [7] The former point of view was attributed to the Stoic Chrysippus (c. 279 – c. 206 BC) by Alexander of Aphrodisias, who wrote: [8]

They hold that after the conflagration all the same things come to be again in the world numerically, so that even the same peculiarly qualified individual as before exists and comes to be again in that world, as Chrysippus says in his books On the World.

On the other hand, Origen (c. 185 – c. 253 AD) characterises the Stoics as claiming that the contents of each cycle will not be identical, but only indistinguishable: [9]

To avoid supposing that Socrates will live again, they say that it will be some one indistinguishable from Socrates, who will marry some one indistinguishable from Xanthippe, and will be accused by men indistinguishable from Anytus and Meletus.

Origen also records a heterodox version of the doctrine, noting that some Stoics suggest that "there is a slight and very minute difference between one period and the events in the period before it". [10] This was probably not a widely-held belief, as it represents a denial of the deterministic viewpoint which stands at the heart of Stoic philosophy. [11]

Christian response

Christian authors attacked the doctrine of eternal recurrence on various grounds. Origen argued that the theory was incompatible with free will (although he did allow the possibility of diverse and non-identical cycles). [12] Augustine of Hippo (AD 354–430) objected to the fact that salvation was not possible in the Stoic scheme, arguing that even if a temporary happiness was attained, a soul could not be truly blessed if it was doomed to return again to misery. [13]

Augustine also mentions "certain philosophers" who cite Ecclesiastes 1:9–10 as evidence of eternal return: "What is that which hath been? It is that which shall be. And what is that which is done? It is that which shall be done: and there is no new thing under the sun. Who can speak and say, See, this is new? It hath been already of old time, which was before us." Augustine denies that this has reference to the recurrence of specific people, objects, and events, instead interpreting the passage in a more general sense. In support of his argument, he appeals to scriptural passages such as Romans 6:9, which affirms that Christ "being raised from the dead dieth no more". [13]

Friedrich Nietzsche

Eternal recurrence (German : Ewige Wiederkunft) is one of the central concepts of the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). [14] While the idea itself is not original to Nietzsche, his unique response to it gave new life to the theory, and speculation as to the correct interpretation of Nietzsche's doctrine continues to this day.

Precursors

The discovery of the laws of thermodynamics in the 19th century restarted the debate among scientists and philosophers about the ultimate fate of the universe, which brought in its train many questions about the nature of time. [15] Eduard von Hartmann argued that the universe's final state would be identical to the state in which it had begun; Eugen Dühring rejected this idea, claiming that it carried with it the necessary consequence that the universe would begin again, and that the same forms would repeat themselves eternally, a doctrine which Dühring viewed as dangerously pessimistic. [16] Johann Gustav Vogt  [ de ], on the other hand, argued in favour of a cyclical system, additionally positing the spatial co-existence of an infinite number of identical worlds. [17] Louis Auguste Blanqui similarly claimed that in an infinite universe, every possible combination of forms must repeat itself eternally across both time and space. [18]

Nietzsche's formulation

Nietzsche wrote that the concept of eternal return first occurred to him at Lake Silvaplana in Switzerland, "beside a huge rock that towered aloft like a pyramid". Nietzsche-Stein 01.jpg
Nietzsche wrote that the concept of eternal return first occurred to him at Lake Silvaplana in Switzerland, "beside a huge rock that towered aloft like a pyramid".

Nietzsche may have drawn upon a number of sources in developing his own formulation of the theory. He had studied Pythagorean and Stoic philosophy, [20] was familiar with the works of contemporary philosophers such as Dühring and Vogt, [21] and may have encountered references to Blanqui in a book by Friedrich Albert Lange. [22] He was also a fan of the author Heinrich Heine, one of whose books contains a passage discussing the theory of eternal return. [20] Nevertheless, Nietzsche claimed that the doctrine struck him one day as a sudden revelation, while walking beside Lake Silvaplana in Switzerland. [19]

The first published presentation of Nietzsche's version of the theory appears in The Gay Science , section 341, where it is proposed to the reader as a thought experiment.

What if some day or night a demon were to steal after you into your loneliest loneliness, and say to you, "This life as you now live it and have lived it, you will have to live once more and innumerable times more; and there will be nothing new in it, but every pain and every joy and every thought and sigh and everything unutterably small or great in your life will have to return to you, all in the same succession and sequence" ... Would you not throw yourself down and gnash your teeth and curse the demon who spoke thus? Or have you once experienced a tremendous moment when you would have answered him: "You are a god and never have I heard anything more divine." [23]

Nietzsche expanded upon this concept in the philosophical novel Thus Spoke Zarathustra , later writing that eternal return was "the fundamental idea of the work". [19] In this novel, the titular Zarathustra is initially struck with horror at the thought that all things must recur eternally; ultimately, however, he overcomes his aversion to eternal return and embraces it as his most fervent desire. In the penultimate chapter of the work ("The Drunken Song"), Zarathustra declares: "All things are entangled, ensnared, enamored; if you ever wanted one thing twice, if you ever said, 'You please me, happiness! Abide, moment!' then you wanted all back ... For all joy wants—eternity." [24]

Interpretation

Martin Heidegger points out that Nietzsche's first mention of eternal recurrence in The Gay Science presents this concept as a hypothetical question rather than postulating it as a fact. Many readings argue that Nietzsche was not attempting to make a cosmological or theoretical claim i.e. saying that eternal recurrence is a true statement about how the world works. Instead, the emotional reaction to the thought experiment serves to reveal whether one is living life to the best. [25] According to Heidegger, the significant point is the burden imposed by the question of eternal recurrence, regardless of whether or not such a thing could possibly be true. [26] The idea is similar to Nietzsche's concept of amor fati , which he describes in Ecce Homo : "My formula for greatness in a human being is amor fati: that one wants nothing to be different, not forward, not backward, not in all eternity. Not merely to bear what is necessary, still less conceal it ... but love it." [27] [28]

On the other hand, Nietzsche's posthumously published notebooks contain an attempt at a logical proof of eternal return, which is often adduced in support of the claim that Nietzsche believed in the theory as a real possibility. [28] The proof is based upon the premise that the universe is infinite in duration, but contains a finite quantity of energy. This being the case, all matter in the universe must pass through a finite number of combinations, and each series of combinations must eventually repeat in the same order, thereby creating "a circular movement of absolutely identical series". [29] However, scholars such as Neil Sinhababu and Kuong Un Teng have suggested that the reason this material remained unpublished was because Nietzsche himself was unconvinced that his argument would hold up to scrutiny. [28] [note 1]

A third possibility is that Nietzsche was attempting to create a new ethical standard by which people should judge their own behaviour. [31] In one of his unpublished notes, Nietzsche writes: "The question which thou wilt have to answer before every deed that thou doest: 'is this such a deed as I am prepared to perform an incalculable number of times?' is the best ballast." [32] Taken in this sense, the doctrine has been compared to the categorical imperative of Immanuel Kant. [33] Once again, however, the objection is raised that no such ethical imperative appears in any of Nietzsche's published writings, [31] and this interpretation is therefore rejected by most modern scholars. [28]

P. D. Ouspensky

Russian esotericist P. D. Ouspensky (1878–1947) believed in the literal truth of eternal recurrence. As a child, he had been prone to vivid sensations of déjà vu , [34] and when he encountered the theory of eternal return in the writings of Nietzsche, it occurred to him that this was a possible explanation for his experiences. [35] He subsequently explored the idea in his semi-autobiographical novel, Strange Life of Ivan Osokin .

In this story, Ivan Osokin implores a magician to send him back to his childhood and give him the chance to live his life over again. The magician obliges, but warns Ivan that he will be unable to correct any of his mistakes. This turns out to be the case; although Ivan always knows in advance what the outcome of his actions will be, he is unable to keep himself from repeating those actions. Having re-lived his life up to the point of his conversation with the magician, Ivan asks in despair whether there is any way of changing the past. The magician answers that he must first change himself; if he works on improving his character, he may have a chance of making better decisions next time around.

The earliest version of the novel, however, did not include the magician, [36] and ended on "a totally pessimistic note". [37] The revolution in Ouspensky's thoughts on recurrence – the idea that change is possible – took place after he became a disciple of the mystic George Gurdjieff, who taught that a person could achieve a higher state of consciousness through a system of strict self-discipline. When Ouspensky asked about eternal recurrence, Gurdjieff told him: [38]

This idea of repetition ... is not the full and absolute truth, but it is the nearest possible approximation of the truth ... And if you understand why I do not speak of this, you will be still nearer to it. What is the use of a man knowing about recurrence if he is not conscious of it and if he himself does not change? ... Knowledge about the repetition of lives will add nothing for a man ... if he does not strive to change himself in order to escape this repetition. But if he changes something essential in himself, that is, if he attains something, this cannot be lost.

Ouspensky incorporated this idea into his later writings. In A New Model of the Universe, he argued against Nietzsche's proof of the mathematical necessity of eternal repetition, claiming that a large enough quantity of matter would be capable of an infinite number of possible combinations. According to Ouspensky, everyone is reborn again into the same life at the moment of their death, and many people will indeed continue to live the exact same lives for eternity, but it is also possible to break the cycle and enter into a new plane of existence. [39]

Science and mathematics

The Poincaré recurrence theorem states that certain dynamical systems, such as particles of gas in a sealed container, will return infinitely often to a state arbitrarily close to their original state. [40] [41] The theorem, first advanced by Henri Poincaré in 1890, remains influential, and is today the basis of ergodic theory. [42] Attempts have been made to prove or disprove the possibility of Poincaré recurrence in a system the size of a galaxy or a universe. [40] [42] Philosopher Michael Huemer has argued that if this is so, then reincarnation can be proved by a person's current existence, using Bayesian probability theory. [43]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ One rebuttal of Nietzsche's theory, put forward by his contemporary Georg Simmel, is summarised by Walter Kaufmann as follows: "Even if there were exceedingly few things in a finite space in an infinite time, they would not have to repeat in the same configurations. Suppose there were three wheels of equal size, rotating on the same axis, one point marked on the circumference of each wheel, and these three points lined up in one straight line. If the second wheel rotated twice as fast as the first, and if the speed of the third wheel was 1/π of the speed of the first, the initial line-up would never recur." [30]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Friedrich Nietzsche</span> German philosopher (1844–1900)

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche was a German classical scholar, philosopher, and critic of culture, who became one of the most influential of all modern thinkers. He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest person to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in Switzerland in 1869, at the age of 24, but resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life; he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and afterward a complete loss of his mental faculties, with paralysis and probably vascular dementia. He lived his remaining years in the care of his mother until her death in 1897, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche. Nietzsche died in 1900, after experiencing pneumonia and multiple strokes.

In philosophy, nihilism is any viewpoint, or a family of views, that rejects generally accepted or fundamental aspects of human existence, namely knowledge, morality, or meaning. There have been different nihilist positions, including that human values are baseless, that life is meaningless, that knowledge is impossible, or that some other highly regarded concepts are in fact meaningless or pointless. The term was popularized by Ivan Turgenev and more specifically by his character Bazarov in the novel Fathers and Sons.

The Übermensch is a concept in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. In his 1883 book, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Nietzsche has his character Zarathustra posit the Übermensch as a goal for humanity to set for itself. The Übermensch represents a shift from otherworldly Christian values and manifests the grounded human ideal. The Übermensch is someone who has "crossed over" the bridge, from the comfortable "house on the lake" to the mountains of unrest and solitude.

<i>Thus Spoke Zarathustra</i> Philosophical work by Friedrich Nietzsche

Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and None, also translated as Thus Spake Zarathustra, is a work of philosophical fiction written by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche; it was published in four volumes between 1883 and 1885. The protagonist is nominally the historical Zarathustra, more commonly called Zoroaster in the West.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fatalism</span> Philosophical doctrine on the subjugation of all events to fate

Fatalism is a belief and philosophical doctrine which considers the entire universe as a deterministic system and stresses the subjugation of all events, actions, and behaviors to fate or destiny, which is commonly associated with the consequent attitude of resignation in the face of future events which are thought to be inevitable and outside of human control.

In theology, apokatastasis is the restoration of creation to a condition of perfection. In Christianity, the term refers to a form of Christian universalism, often associated with Origen, that includes the ultimate salvation of everyone—including the damned and the Devil. The New Testament speaks of the "apokatastasis of all things," although this passage is not usually understood to teach universal salvation. The dogmatic status of apokatastasis is disputed, and some orthodox fathers such as Gregory of Nyssa taught apokatastasis and were never condemned.

<i>Beyond Good and Evil</i> 1886 book by Friedrich Nietzsche

Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future is a book by philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche that covers ideas in his previous work Thus Spoke Zarathustra but with a more polemical approach. It was first published in 1886 under the publishing house C. G. Naumann of Leipzig at the author's own expense and first translated into English by Helen Zimmern, who was two years younger than Nietzsche and knew the author.

The will to power is a concept in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. The will to power describes what Nietzsche may have believed to be the main driving force in humans. However, the concept was never systematically defined in Nietzsche's work, leaving its interpretation open to debate. Usage of the term by Nietzsche can be summarized as self-determination, the concept of actualizing one's will onto one's self or one's surroundings, and coincides heavily with egoism.

The expression immaculate perception, used by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche in his text Thus Spoke Zarathustra; the term pertains to the idea of "pure knowledge." Nietzsche argues that "immaculate perception" is fictional because it ignores the intimate connection between the perceiver and the external world. He argues that humans are fallible and are capable of using data to ratify or refute perceptions. He also clarifies that perception is value-laden and can be ruled by our interests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)</span> German-American philosopher (1921–1980)

Walter Arnold Kaufmann was a German-American philosopher, translator, and poet. A prolific author, he wrote extensively on a broad range of subjects, such as authenticity and death, moral philosophy and existentialism, theism and atheism, Christianity and Judaism, as well as philosophy and literature. He served more than 30 years as a professor at Princeton University.

<i>The Gay Science</i> 1882 book by Friedrich Nietzsche

The Gay Science is a book by Friedrich Nietzsche published in 1882, and followed by a second edition in 1887 after the completion of Thus Spoke Zarathustra and Beyond Good and Evil. This substantial expansion includes the addition of a fifth book to the existing four books of The Gay Science, as well as an appendix of songs. It was described by Nietzsche as "the most personal of all my books", and contains more poems than any of his other works.

<i>Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks</i>

Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks is an incomplete book by Friedrich Nietzsche. He had a clean copy made from his notes with the intention of publication. The notes were written around 1873. In it he discussed five Greek philosophers from the sixth and fifth centuries BC. They are Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus, Parmenides, and Anaxagoras. He had, at one time, intended to include Democritus, Empedocles, and Socrates. The book ends abruptly after the discussion of Anaxagoras's cosmogony.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche</span> Philosophical ideas written by Friedrich Nietzche

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) developed his philosophy during the late 19th century. He owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading Arthur Schopenhauer's Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung and said that Schopenhauer was one of the few thinkers that he respected, dedicating to him his essay Schopenhauer als Erzieher, published in 1874 as one of his Untimely Meditations.

<i>Twilight of the Idols</i> 1889 book by Friedrich Nietzsche

Twilight of the Idols, or, How to Philosophize with a Hammer is a book by Friedrich Nietzsche, written in 1888, and published in 1889.

Amor fati is a Latin phrase that may be translated as "love of fate" or "love of one's fate". It is used to describe an attitude in which one sees everything that happens in one's life, including suffering and loss, as good or, at the very least, necessary.

Hellenistic philosophy is Ancient Greek philosophy corresponding to the Hellenistic period in Ancient Greece, from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC to the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. The dominant schools of this period were the Stoics, the Epicureans and the Skeptics.

<i>Strange Life of Ivan Osokin</i> 1915 novel by P. D. Ouspensky

Strange Life of Ivan Osokin is a 1915 novel by P. D. Ouspensky. It follows the unsuccessful struggle of Ivan Osokin to correct his mistakes when given a chance to relive his past. The novel serves as a narrative platform for Nietzsche's theory of eternal recurrence. The conclusion fully anticipates the Fourth Way philosophy, which typified Ouspensky's later works. In particular the final chapter's description of the shocking realization of the mechanical nature of existence, its consequences, and the possibility/responsibility of working in an esoteric school.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stoicism</span> Virtue-focused philosophical system

Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The Stoics believed that the practice of virtue is enough to achieve eudaimonia: a well-lived life. The Stoics identified the path to achieving it with a life spent practicing the four virtues in everyday life—wisdom, courage, temperance or moderation, and justice—as well as living in accordance with nature. It was founded in the ancient Agora of Athens by Zeno of Citium around 300 BCE.

Ivan Soll is an American philosopher who is a Professor Emeritus in the Department of Philosophy at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in the United States. He taught at UW from 1965 until his retirement in May 2011. His teaching and research focused on the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, German philosophy in general, existentialism, aesthetics, and various figures of continental philosophy.

A sage, in classical philosophy, is someone who has attained wisdom. The term has also been used interchangeably with a 'good person', and a 'virtuous person'. Among the earliest accounts of the sage begin with Empedocles' Sphairos. Horace describes the Sphairos as "Completely within itself, well-rounded and spherical, so that nothing extraneous can adhere to it, because of its smooth and polished surface." Alternatively, the sage is one who lives "according to an ideal which transcends the everyday."

References

  1. ↑ "Porphyry, Life of Pythagoras (§19)". Translated by Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie. 1920. Hosted at the Tertullian Project.
  2. ↑ Simplicius: On Aristotle's Physics 4.1–5, 10–14 . Translated by J. O. Urmson. Cornell University Press. 1992. p. 142. ISBN   0-8014-2817-3.
  3. ↑ Zeller, Eduard (1880). The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics. Translated by Oswald J. Reichel. London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 166–167.
  4. ↑ Sellers, John (2006). Stoicism . Acumen. p. 99. ISBN   978-1-84465-053-8.
  5. ↑ White, Michael J. (2003). "Stoic Natural Philosophy (Physics and Cosmology)". In Inwood, Brad (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 141–142. ISBN   0-521-77985-5.
  6. ↑ Plato, Timaeus 39d.
  7. ↑ "Stoicism: Physical Theory". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  8. ↑ Salles, Ricardo (2005). "On the Individuation of Times and Events in Orthodox Stoicism". In Salles, Ricardo (ed.). Metaphysics, Soul, and Ethics in Ancient Thought. Clarendon Press. p. 107. ISBN   0-19-926130-X.
  9. ↑ Origen: Contra Celsum. Translated by Henry Chadwick. Cambridge University Press. 1965. p. 238 (book IV, section 68).
  10. ↑ Chadwick 1965, pp. 279–280 (book V, section 20).
  11. ↑ White 2003 , p. 143
  12. ↑ Origen: On First Principles . Translated by G. W. Butterworth. Harper & Row. 1966. pp. 87–88 (book II, chapter 3, section 4).
  13. 1 2 Augustine: The City of God Against the Pagans . Translated by R. W. Dyson. Cambridge University Press. 1998. pp. 516–517 (book XII, chapter 14).
  14. ↑ Anderson, R. Lanier (17 March 2017). "Friedrich Nietzsche". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  15. ↑ D'Iorio, Paolo (2014). "The Eternal Return: Genesis and Interpretation". Lexicon Philosophicum (2): 66–67. doi:10.19283/lph-20142.414.
  16. ↑ D'Iorio 2014 , pp. 68–74
  17. ↑ D'Iorio 2014 , p. 42–43
  18. ↑ "Eternity by the Stars (1872)". The Blanqui Archive.
  19. 1 2 3 Nietzsche, Friedrich (1911). Ecce Homo. Translated by Anthony M. Ludovici. Macmillan. p. 96.
  20. 1 2 Kaufmann, Walter A. (1974). Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist (4th ed.). Princeton University Press. pp.  317–319. ISBN   978-0-6910-1983-3.
  21. ↑ D'Iorio 2014 , p. 43, 74
  22. ↑ Fouillée, Alfred (1909). "Note sur Nietzsche et Lange: 'le retour éternel'". Revue philosophique de la France et de l'étranger (in French). 67: 519–525.
  23. ↑ Schacht, Richard (2001). Nietzsche's Postmoralism: Essays on Nietzsche's Prelude to Philosophy's Future. Cambridge University Press. p. 237. ISBN   978-0-521-64085-5.
  24. ↑ Kaufmann, Walter, ed. (1954). The Portable Nietzsche . The Viking Press. p. 435.
  25. ↑ Anderson, R. Lanier (2022), "Friedrich Nietzsche", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2022 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 2023-11-28
  26. ↑ Heidegger, Martin (1984). Nietzsche, Volume II: The Eternal Recurrence of the Same. Translated by David Farrell Krell. New York: Harper and Row. p. 25.
  27. ↑ Nietzsche, Frederich (2000). Basic Writings of Nietzsche. Translated by Walter Kaufmann. Modern Library. p. 714. ISBN   978-0-6797-8339-8.
  28. 1 2 3 4 Sinhababu, Neil; Kuong, Un Teng (2019). "Loving the Eternal Recurrence". The Journal of Nietzsche Studies. 50 (1): 106–124. doi: 10.5325/jnietstud.50.1.0106 .
  29. ↑ Ludovici, Anthony M., ed. (1913). Friedrich Nietzsche: The Will to Power. Vol. II. §1066 – via Project Gutenberg.
  30. ↑ Kaufmann 1974, p.  327
  31. 1 2 Oger, Eric (1997). "The Eternal Return as Crucial Test". Journal of Nietzsche Studies (14): 4–7. JSTOR   20717674.
  32. ↑ Ludovici, Anthony M., ed. (1911). "The Eternal Recurrence". Friedrich Nietzsche: The Twilight of the Idols. §28 – via Project Gutenberg.
  33. ↑ Kaufmann 1974 , pp.  22–23
  34. ↑ Webb, James (1980). The Harmonious Circle. J. P. Putnam's Sons. p. 96. ISBN   0-399-11465-3.
  35. ↑ Wilson, Colin (2005). The Strange Life of P. D. Ouspensky. Aeon Books. p. 13. ISBN   1-904658-25-3.
  36. ↑ Webb 1980 , pp. 452–453
  37. ↑ Wilson 2005 , p. 73
  38. ↑ Ouspensky, P. D. (1950). In Search of the Miraculous. Routledge and Kegan Paul Limited. p. 250.
  39. ↑ Ouspensky, P. D. (1938). "Eternal Recurrence and the Laws of Manu". A New Model of the Universe (3rd ed.). Routledge and Kegan Paul Limited. pp. 464–513.
  40. 1 2 Tipler, Frank J. (1980). "General Relativity and the Eternal Return". Essays in General Relativity: A Festschrift for Abraham Taub. Academic Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN   978-1-4832-7362-4.
  41. ↑ Sinai, VA. G. (1976). Introduction to Ergodic Theory. Translated by V. Scheffer. Princeton University Press. p. 8. ISBN   0-691-08182-4.
  42. 1 2 de Gosson, Maurice A. (June 2018). "The Symplectic Camel and Poincaré Superrecurrence: Open Problems". Entropy. 20 (7): 499. Bibcode:2018Entrp..20..499G. doi: 10.3390/e20070499 . PMC   7513024 . PMID   33265589.
  43. ↑ Huemer, Michael (March 2021). "Existence Is Evidence of Immortality". Noûs. 55 (1): 128–151. doi:10.1111/nous.12295. S2CID   171615368.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.