Wisdom

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Luca Giordano: The Dream of Solomon: God promises Solomon wisdom Luca Giordano - Dream of Solomon - WGA09004.jpg
Luca Giordano: The Dream of Solomon: God promises Solomon wisdom
Solomon's Wisdom, 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 109.png
Solomon's Wisdom, 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld

Wisdom (sapience, sagacity, sophont) is the use of one's knowledge and experience to make good judgements. [1] [2] [3] [4] Wisdom is the interpreting and understanding of knowledge that leads to greater insight (e.g., common sense). [5] [6] [7] Wisdom is a pragmatic kind of "praxis (process)" where one is constantly using metacognition. [8] [9]

Contents

Overview

The wise ones have equanimity (psychological stability) through tough times and an acceptance of reality. [10] Wise ones use active and reflective listening, temperance (virtue), and a wise rhetoric. [11]

Wisdom is associated with compromise, intellectual humility, acceptance of uncertainty, and a cosmopolitanism of what is Good. [12] Wisdom contains virtues such as ethics and benevolence. [13] [14] Wisdom is personified as femininity (i.e., Sophia). [2] [15]

Wisdom has been defined in many different ways, [12] [16] [13] and there are several distinct approaches to assessing the characteristics attributed to wisdom. [17] [18]

Early mention of wisdom in Beowulf Beowulf - wisdome.jpg
Early mention of wisdom in Beowulf

Charles Haddon Spurgeon defined wisdom as "the right use of knowledge". [19] Robert I. Sutton and Andrew Hargadon defined the "attitude of wisdom" as "acting with knowledge while doubting what one knows". [20]

In social and psychological sciences, several distinct approaches to wisdom exist, [13] along with techniques of operationalization [12] and measurement [18] of wisdom as a psychological construct. Wisdom is the capacity to have foreknowledge of something, to know the consequences (positive and negative) of the available courses of action, and take the best of the available options. [21]

Sapience

Sapience ("sophia" in Greek) is "transcendent wisdom", "ultimate reality", or the ultimate truth of things. [16] [14] [22] This more cosmic, "big picture" definition is often how wisdom ("true wisdom" or "Wisdom" with a capital W) is considered in a religious context. [16] [14] It transcends mere practical wisdom and may include deep understanding of self, interconnectedness, conditioned origination, and phenomenological insight. [23] [16] [14] A person with this type of wisdom can act with appropriate judgment, a broad understanding of situations, and greater appreciation/compassion towards other living beings. [23]

The word sapience is derived from the Latin sapientia, meaning "wisdom". [24] The corresponding verb sapere has the original meaning of "to taste", hence "to perceive, to discern" and "to know"; its present participle sapiens was chosen by Carl Linnaeus for the Latin binomial for the human species, Homo sapiens .

Perennial wisdom

Perennial wisdom seeks unity through nondualism. [25] [26]

Heuristic

The wisdom of the crowd is a common strategy (i.e., heuristic). [27] The Socratic method is a heuristic of epistemology. [28]

Mythological perspectives

Buddhist mythology

Buddhist traditions provide comprehensive guidance on how to develop wisdom. [23] [29]

Wisdom tooth

In many cultures, the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is etymologically linked with wisdom, as in the English wisdom tooth . This nickname originated from the classical tradition –the Hippocratic writings used the term sóphronistér (in Greek, related to the meaning of moderation or teaching a lesson), and in Latin dens sapientiae (wisdom tooth). [30]

Greek mythology

Athena and metis

Athena (as Mentor) supported him by recognizing and fostering courage, hope, sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102). [31]

— Sommer

The ancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an important virtue, personified as the goddesses Metis and Athena. Metis was the first wife of Zeus, who, according to Hesiod's Theogony, had devoured her pregnant; Zeus earned the title of Mêtieta ("The Wise Counselor") after that, as Metis was the embodiment of wisdom, and he gave birth to Athena, who is said to have sprung from his head. [32] [33] Athena was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste. [34]

Apollo

Apollo was also considered a god of wisdom, designated as the conductor of the Muses (Musagetes), [35] who were personifications of the sciences and of the inspired and poetic arts. According to Plato in his Cratylus , the name of Apollo could also mean "ballon" (archer) and "omopoulon" (unifier of poles [divine and earthly]), since this god was responsible for divine and true inspirations, thus considered an archer who was always right in healing and oracles: "he is an ever-darting archer". [36] Apollo prophesied through the priestesses (Pythia) in the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), where the aphorism "know thyself" (gnōthi seauton) [a] was inscribed (one of the Delphic maxims). [37] He was contrasted with Hermes, who was related to the sciences and technical wisdom, and, in the first centuries after Christ, was associated with Thoth in an Egyptian syncretism, under the name Hermes Trimegistus. [38] Greek tradition recorded the earliest introducers of wisdom in the Seven Sages of Greece. [39]

To Socrates and Plato, philosophy was literally the love of wisdom ( philo-sophia ). This permeates Plato's dialogues; in The Republic the leaders of his proposed utopia are philosopher kings who understand the Form of the Good and possess the courage to act accordingly. Aristotle, in Metaphysics , defined wisdom as understanding why things are a certain way (causality), which is deeper than merely knowing things are a certain way. [b] He was the first to make the distinction between phronesis and sophia. [16]

According to Plato and Xenophon, the Pythia of the Delphic Oracle answered the question "who is the wisest man in Greece?" by stating Socrates was the wisest. [40] According to Plato's Apology, Socrates decided to investigate the people who might be considered wiser than him, concluding they lacked true knowledge:

This became immortalized in the phrase "I know that I know nothing" an aphorism suggesting that it is wise to recognize one's own ignorance [41] and to value epistemic humility. [42]

Roman mythology

The ancient Romans also valued wisdom, which was personified as Minerva or Pallas. She also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the owl, which is still a popular representation of wisdom, because it can see in darkness. She was said to have been born from Jupiter's forehead. [43]

Norse mythology

Odin is known for his wisdom, often as acquired through various hardships and ordeals involving pain and self-sacrifice. In one instance he plucked out an eye and offered it to Mímir, guardian of the well of knowledge and wisdom, in return for a drink from the well. [44] In another famous account, Odin hanged himself for nine nights from Yggdrasil, the World Tree that unites all the realms of existence, suffering from hunger and thirst and finally wounding himself with a spear until he gained the knowledge of runes for use in casting powerful magic. [45] He was also able to acquire the mead of poetry from the giants, a drink of which could grant the power of a scholar or poet, for the benefit of gods and mortals alike. [44]

Egyptian mythology

Sia was the personification of perception and thoughtfulness in the mythology of Ancient Egypt. Thoth, married to Maat (in ancient Egyptian: order, righteousness, truth), was regarded as the being who introduced wisdom to the nation. [46] [47]

Academia

Theories and models

Educational perspectives

Wisdom Defending Youth against Love by Meynier, c. 1810 Meynier - Wisdom defending Youth against Love.jpg
Wisdom Defending Youth against Love by Meynier, c. 1810
Truth and Wisdom assist History in writing by Jacob de Wit, 1754 Jacob de Wit - Allegorie op het schrijven van de geschiedenis 1754.jpg
Truth and Wisdom assist History in writing by Jacob de Wit, 1754

Public schools in the U.S. sometimes nod at "character education" which would include training in wisdom. [50]

Maxwell's educational philosophy

Nicholas Maxwell, a philosopher in the United Kingdom, believes academia ought to alter its focus from the acquisition of knowledge to seeking and promoting wisdom. [51] This he defines as the capacity to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others. [52] He teaches that new knowledge and technological know-how increase our power to act. Without wisdom though, Maxwell claims this new knowledge may cause human harm as well as human good. He argues that the pursuit of knowledge is indeed valuable and good, but that it should be considered a part of the broader task of improving wisdom. [53]

Psychological perspectives

The three major psychological categories for wisdom are personality, development, and expertise. [54]

Psychologists have begun to gather data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom. [55] Initial analyses indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality, and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is an expertise in dealing with difficult questions of life and adaptation to the complex requirements." [56]

The field of psychology has also developed explicit theories and empirical research on the psychological processes underlying wisdom. [57] [13] Opinions on the psychological definition of wisdom vary, [13] but there is some consensus that critical to wisdom are certain meta-cognitive processes that afford life reflection and judgment about critical life matters. [58] [12] These processes include recognizing the limits of one's own knowledge, acknowledging uncertainty and change, attention to context and the bigger picture, and integrating different perspectives of a situation. [59] Cognitive scientists suggest that wisdom requires coordinating such reasoning processes for insight into managing one's life. [60] Reasoning of this sort is both theoretically and empirically distinct from general (fluid or crystallized) intelligence. [61] Researchers have shown empirically that wise reasoning is distinct from IQ. [62]

Baltes and colleagues defined wisdom as "the ability to deal with the contradictions of a specific situation and to assess the consequences of an action for themselves and for others. It is achieved when in a concrete situation, a balance between intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional interests can be prepared". [63] Balance appears to be a critical criterion of wisdom. Empirical research provides some support for this idea, showing that wisdom-related reasoning is associated with achieving balance between intrapersonal and interpersonal interests when facing personal life challenges, and when setting goals for managing interpersonal conflicts. [18] [64]

Researchers also explore the role of emotions in wisdom. [65] Most agree that emotions and emotion regulation are key to effectively managing the kinds of complex and arousing situations that most call for wisdom. Much empirical research has focused on the cognitive or meta-cognitive aspects of wisdom, assuming that an ability to reason through difficult situations is paramount. So although emotions likely play a role in how wisdom plays out in real events (and in reflecting on past events), empirical studies were late to develop on how emotions affect a person's ability to deal wisely with complex events. One study found a positive relationship between diversity of emotional experience and wise reasoning, irrespective of emotional intensity. [66]

Positive psychology

Peterson & Seligman state that perspective is a strength of wisdom (e.g., sage advice). [67]

Gestalt therapy

A wise-person fantasy is an awareness intervention, where one poses a question, thinks on it for a few minutes, and then role-plays a fantasized wise person to answer that same question. [70]

Grossman

Grossmann and colleagues summarized prior psychological literature to conclude that wisdom involves certain cognitive processes that afford unbiased, sound judgment in the face of ill-defined life situations:

  1. intellectual humility, or recognition of limits of own knowledge
  2. appreciation of perspectives broader than the issue at hand
  3. sensitivity to the possibility of change in social relations
  4. compromise or integration of different perspectives [71] [72]

Grossmann found that habitually speaking and thinking of oneself in the third person increases these characteristics, which means that such a habit makes a person wiser. [73] Grossmann says contextual factors –such as culture, experiences, and social situations –influence the understanding, development, and propensity of wisdom, with implications for training and educational practice. [12] [71] These contextual factors are the focus of continuing research. For instance, Grossmann and Kross identified a phenomenon they called "the Solomon's paradox": that people reflect more wisely on other people's problems than on their own. (It is named after King Solomon, who had legendary sagacity when making judgments about other people's dilemmas but lacked insight when it came to important decisions in his own life.) [74]

Measuring wisdom

A researcher will measure wisdom differently depending on their theoretical position about the nature of wisdom. For example, some view wisdom as a stable personality trait, others as a context-bound process. [75] Those wedded to the former approach often use single-shot questionnaires, which are prone to biased[ clarification needed ] responses, [18] [76] something that is antithetical to the wisdom construct [77] and fails to study wisdom in the contexts where it is most relevant: complex life challenges. In contrast, researchers who prefer the latter approach measure wisdom-related features of cognition, motivation, and emotion in the context of a specific situation. [78] [75] Such state-level measures provide less-biased responses as well as greater power in explaining meaningful psychological processes. [18] Also, a focus on the situation allows wisdom researchers to develop a fuller understanding of the role of context in producing wisdom. [75] For example, studies have shown evidence of cross-cultural [79] and within-cultural variability, [80] and systematic variability in reasoning wisely across contexts [18] [74] and in daily life. [81]

Many, but not all, studies find that adults' self-ratings of perspective and wisdom do not depend on age. [82] [83] [84] This conflicts with the popular notion that wisdom increases with age. [83] The answer to whether age and wisdom correlate depends on how one defines wisdom and one's experimental technique. The answer to this question also depends on the domain studied, and the role of experience in that domain, with some contexts favoring older adults, others favoring younger adults, and some not differentiating age groups. [75] Rigorous longitudinal work is needed to answer this question, while most studies rely on cross-sectional observations. [21]

The Jeste-Thomas Wisdom Index [85] is based on a 28-question survey (SD-WISE-28) created by researchers at the University of California San Diego to determine how wise a person is. In 2021 Dr. Dilip V. Jeste and his colleagues created a 7-question survey (SD-WISE-7) testing seven components: acceptance of diverse perspectives, decisiveness, emotional regulation, prosocial behaviors, self-reflection, social advising, and (to a lesser degree) spirituality. [86]

Archetypal psychology

Star Wars is a monomyth that uses archetypal psychology, specifically Joseph Campbell's The Hero of a Thousand Faces. [87] The character Master Yoda from the films evokes the trope of the wise old man, [88] and he is frequently quoted, analogously to Chinese thinkers or Eastern sages in general. [89] [90]

Monotheistic perspectives

Zoroastrianism

In the Avesta Gathas, hymns traditionally attributed to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda means "Lord" (Ahura) and "Wisdom" (Mazda), and is the central deity who embodies goodness, being also called "Good Thought" (Vohu Manah). [91] In Zoroastrianism, the order of the universe and morals is called asha (in Avestan, truth, righteousness), which is determined by this omniscient Thought and also considered a deity emanating from Ahura (Amesha Spenta). It is related to another ahura deity, Spenta Mainyu (active Mentality). [92] It says in Yazna 31: [93]

To him shall the best befall, who, as one that knows, speaks to me Right's truthful word of Welfare and of Immortality; even the Dominion of Mazda which Good Thought shall increase for him. About which he in the beginning thus thought, "let the blessed realms be filled with Light", he it is that by his wisdom created Right.

Baháʼí Faith

In Baháʼí Faith scripture, "The essence of wisdom is the fear of God, the dread of His scourge and punishment, and the apprehension of His justice and decree." [94] Wisdom is seen as a light that casts away darkness, and "its dictates must be observed under all circumstances". [95] One may obtain knowledge and wisdom through God, his Word, and his Divine Manifestation; the source of all learning is the knowledge of God. [96]

Abrahamic religions

Hebrew Bible and Judaism

The word "wisdom" (חכם) is mentioned 222 times in the Hebrew Bible. It was regarded as one of the highest virtues among the Israelites along with kindness (חסד) and justice (צדק). The books of Proverbs and Psalms each urge readers to obtain and to increase in wisdom.[ citation needed ]

Image from "Book of Wisdom" of Francysk Skaryna 1518 Book of Wisdom Belarusian Skaryna.jpg
Image from "Book of Wisdom" of Francysk Skaryna 1518

In the Hebrew Bible, wisdom is exemplified by Solomon, who asks God for wisdom in 2 Chronicles 1:10. Much of the Book of Proverbs, which is filled with wise sayings, is attributed to Solomon. In Proverbs 9:10, the fear of the Lord is called the beginning of wisdom. Another proverb says that wisdom is gained from God, "For the Lord gives wisdom; from His mouth come knowledge and understanding". [97] In Proverbs 1:20, there is also reference to wisdom personified in female form, "Wisdom calls aloud in the streets, she raises her voice in the marketplaces." In Proverbs 8:22–31, this personified wisdom is described as being present with God before creation began and even as taking part in creation itself.

King Solomon continues his teachings of wisdom in the book of Ecclesiastes. Solomon discusses his exploration of the meaning of life and fulfillment, as he speaks of life's pleasures, work, and materialism, yet concludes that it is all meaningless. "'Meaningless! Meaningless!" says the Teacher [Solomon]. 'Utterly meaningless! Everything is meaningless'...For with much wisdom comes much sorrow, the more knowledge, the more grief" [98] Solomon concludes that all life's pleasures and riches, and even [human]wisdom, mean nothing if there is no relationship with God. [99]

The Talmud teaches that a wise person can foresee the future. Nolad is a Hebrew word for "future," but also the Hebrew word for "birth", so one rabbinic interpretation of the teaching is that a wise person is one who can foresee the consequences of his/her choices (i.e. can "see the future" that he/she "gives birth" to). [100]

Christian theology

In Christian theology, "wisdom" (From Hebrew: חכמה transliteration: chokmâh pronounced: khok-maw', Greek: Sophia, Latin: Sapientia) describes an aspect of God, or the theological concept regarding the wisdom of God.[ citation needed ]

David and Abigail, Abigail was a "wise woman" who helped David. 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld. Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 096.png
David and Abigail , Abigail was a "wise woman" who helped David. 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld.

Christian thought opposes secular wisdom and embraces Godly wisdom. Paul the Apostle states that worldly wisdom thinks the claims of Christ to be foolishness. However, to those who are "on the path to salvation" Christ represents the wisdom of God. [101] Wisdom is considered one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. [102] 1 Corinthians 12:8–10 gives an alternate list of nine virtues, among which is wisdom.

The Epistle of James is a New Testament analogue of the book of Proverbs, in that it also discusses wisdom. It reiterates the message from Proverbs that wisdom comes from God by stating, "If any of you lacks wisdom, you should ask God, who gives generously to all without finding fault, and it will be given to you". [103] James also explains how wisdom helps one acquire other forms of virtue: "But the wisdom that comes from heaven is first of all pure; then peace-loving, considerate, submissive, full of mercy and good fruit, impartial and sincere." [104] James focuses on using this God-given wisdom to perform acts of service to the less fortunate.

Apart from Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and James, other main books of wisdom in the Bible are Job, Psalms, and 1 and 2 Corinthians, which give lessons on gaining and using wisdom through difficult situations.

Islam

The Islamic term for wisdom is hikmah. Prophets of Islam are believed by Muslims to possess great wisdom. The term occurs a number of times in the Quran, notably in Sura 2:269, Sura 22:46, and Sura 6:151.

The Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi considers al-Hakim ("The Wise") as one of the names of the Creator. [105] Wisdom and truth, considered divine attributes, were valued in Islamic sciences and philosophy. The first Arab philosopher, Al-Kindi says at the beginning of his book: [106]

We must not be ashamed to admire the truth or to acquire it, from wherever it comes. Even if it should come from far-flung nations and foreign peoples, there is for the student of truth nothing more important than the truth, nor is the truth demeaned or diminished by the one who states or conveys it; no one is demeaned by the truth, rather all are ennobled by it.

—  Al-Kindi, On First Philosophy

Polytheistic perspectives

Inuit religion

In the Inuit tradition, developing[ ambiguous ] wisdom was one of the aims of teaching. An Inuit Elder said that a person became wise when they could see what needed to be done and do it successfully without being told what to do.

Ancient Near East

In Mesopotamian religion and mythology, Enki, also known as Ea, was the god of wisdom and intelligence. Divine wisdom allowed the provident designation of functions[ clarification needed ] and the ordering of the cosmos, and it[ ambiguous ] was achieved by humans by following me s (in Sumerian: order, rite, righteousness) which maintain balance. [107] In addition to hymns to Enki or Ea dating from the third millennium BCE, there is among the clay tablets of Abu Salabikh from 2600 BCE (the oldest dated texts), a "Hymn to Shamash" which includes the following: [108]

Wide is the courtyard of Shamash night chamber, (just as wide is the womb of) a wise pregnant woman! Sin, his warrior, wise one, heard of the offerings and came down to his fiesta. He is the father of the nation and the father of intelligence

The concept of Logos  –manifest word of the divine thought –was also present in the philosophy and hymns of Egypt and Ancient Greece. [47] It was important in the thinking of Heraclitus, and in the Abrahamic traditions. It seems to have been derived from Mesopotamian culture. [109]

Hellenistic religion and Gnosticism

Indian religions

Medha is a goddess of wisdom found in the Garuda Purana . [110]

In the Indian traditions, wisdom can be called prajña or vijñana .

The Buddhist term Prajñā was translated into Chinese as 智慧 (pinyin zhìhuì, characters 智 "knowledge" and 慧 "bright, intelligent").

In Chinese Buddhism, the idea of wisdom is closely linked to its Indian equivalent as it appears for instance in certain conceptual continuities that exist between Asanga, Vasubandhu and Xuanzang.[ further explanation needed ] [111]

Developing wisdom is of central importance in Buddhist traditions, where the ultimate aim is often presented as "seeing things as they are" or as gaining a "penetrative understanding of all phenomena", which in turn is described as ultimately leading to the "complete freedom from suffering". [23] [29] In Buddhism, developing wisdom is accomplished through an understanding of what are known as the Four Noble Truths and by following the Noble Eightfold Path. [23] [29] This path lists mindfulness as one of eight required components for cultivating wisdom. [23]

Buddhist scriptures teach that wise people conduct themselves well. [112] A wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results, and does not do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results. [113] Wisdom is the antidote to the self-chosen poison of ignorance. The Buddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:

To recover the original supreme wisdom of self-nature (Buddha-nature or Tathagata) concealed by the self-imposed three dusty poisons (the kleshas: greed, anger, ignorance), Buddha taught to his students the threefold training by turning greed into generosity and discipline, anger into kindness and meditation, ignorance into wisdom. As the Sixth Patriarch of Chán Buddhism, Huineng, said in his Platform Sutra, "Mind without dispute is self-nature discipline, mind without disturbance is self-nature meditation, mind without ignorance is self-nature wisdom."

In Mahayana and esoteric Buddhist lineages, Mañjuśrī is considered an embodiment of Buddha wisdom.

In Hinduism, wisdom is considered a state of mind and soul with which a person achieves liberation. The god of wisdom is Ganesha and the goddess of knowledge is Saraswati.[ citation needed ]

The Sanskrit verse to attain knowledge is: [118]

असतो मा सद्गमय
तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय
मृत्योर्मा अमृतं गमय
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः

Asatō mā sadgamaya
tamasō mā jyōtirgamaya
mr̥tyōrmā amr̥taṁ gamaya
Om śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ

Lead me from the unreal to the real.
Lead me from darkness to light.
Lead me from death to immortality.
May there be peace, peace, and peace.

Wisdom in Hinduism is knowing oneself as the truth, as the basis for the entire Creation: ultimate self-awareness as the one who witnesses the entire creation in all its facets and forms. Further it means realization that an individual may, through right conduct and right living, come to realize their true relationship with the creation and the Paramatma .[ citation needed ]

Nontheism

Confucianism

According to the Doctrine of the Mean , Confucius said:

Love of learning is akin to wisdom. To practice with vigor is akin to humanity. To know to be shameful is akin to courage (zhi, ren, yong... three of Mengzi's sprouts of virtue).[ citation needed ][ dubious – discuss ]

Compare this with the Confucian classic Great Learning , which begins with: "The Way of learning to be great consists in manifesting the clear character, loving the people, and abiding in the highest good." This is comparable to the Roman virtue prudence, especially if one interprets "clear character" as "clear conscience". (From Chan's Sources of Chinese Philosophy).[ citation needed ]

Tao

In Taoism, wisdom is adherence to the three treasures: charity, simplicity, and humility.[ citation needed ] "He who knows other men is discerning [智]; he who knows himself is intelligent [明]." (知人者智，自知者明。 Tao Te Ching 33). [119]

See also

Further reading

Notes

  1. ↑ Critias states the meaning of "know thyself" in Plato's Charmides (165a)
  2. ↑ Note that two thousand years after Aristotle, Isaac Newton was forced to admit that "I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity"

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Cross-cultural psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes, including both their variability and invariance, under diverse cultural conditions. Through expanding research methodologies to recognize cultural variance in behavior, language, and meaning it seeks to extend and develop psychology. Since psychology as an academic discipline was developed largely in North America and Europe, some psychologists became concerned that constructs and phenomena accepted as universal were not as invariant as previously assumed, especially since many attempts to replicate notable experiments in other cultures had varying success. Since there are questions as to whether theories dealing with central themes, such as affect, cognition, conceptions of the self, and issues such as psychopathology, anxiety, and depression, may lack external validity when "exported" to other cultural contexts, cross-cultural psychology re-examines them. It does so using methodologies designed to factor in cultural differences so as to account for cultural variance. Some critics have pointed to methodological flaws in cross-cultural psychological research, and claim that serious shortcomings in the theoretical and methodological bases used impede, rather than help, the scientific search for universal principles in psychology. Cross-cultural psychologists are turning more to the study of how differences (variance) occur, rather than searching for universals in the style of physics or chemistry.

Distancing is a concept arising from the work of developmental psychologists Heinz Werner and Bernard Kaplan. Distancing describes the process by which psychologists help a person establish their own individuality through understanding their separateness from everything around them. This understanding of one's identity is considered an essential phase in coming to terms with symbols, which in turn forms the foundation for full cognition and language. Recently, work has been done in psychological distancing in terms of development, personality and behavior.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jonathan Haidt</span> American social psychologist (born 1963)

Jonathan David Haidt is an American social psychologist and author. He is the Thomas Cooley Professor of Ethical Leadership at the New York University Stern School of Business. His main areas of study are the psychology of morality and moral emotions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypocrisy</span> Practice of feigning to be what one is not or to believe what one does not

Hypocrisy is the practice of feigning to be what one is not or to believe what one does not. The word "hypocrisy" entered the English language c. 1200 with the meaning "the sin of pretending to virtue or goodness". Today, "hypocrisy" often refers to advocating behaviors that one does not practice. However, the term can also refer to other forms of pretense, such as engaging in pious or moral behaviors out of a desire for praise rather than out of genuinely pious or moral motivations.

Humanity is a virtue linked with altruistic ethics derived from the human condition. It signifies human love and compassion towards each other. Humanity differs from mere justice in that there is a level of altruism towards individuals included in humanity more so than in the fairness found in justice. That is, humanity, and the acts of love, altruism, and social intelligence are typically individual strengths while fairness is generally expanded to all. Humanity is one of six virtues that are consistent across all cultures.

Darcia Narvaez is a Professor of Psychology Emerita at the University of Notre Dame who has written extensively on issues of character, moral development, and human flourishing.

Intellectual humility is a metacognitive process characterized by recognizing the limits of one's knowledge and acknowledging one's fallibility. It involves several components, including not thinking too highly of oneself, refraining from believing one's own views are superior to others', lacking intellectual vanity, being open to new ideas, and acknowledging mistakes and shortcomings. It is positively associated with openness to new ideas, empathy, prosocial values, tolerance for diverse perspectives, and scrutiny of misinformation. Individuals with higher levels of intellectual humility experience benefits such as improved decision-making, positive social interactions, and the moderation of conflicts. There is a long history of philosophers considering the importance of intellectual humility as a 'virtue'. The modern study of this phenomenon began in the mid-2000s.

Moral identity is a concept within moral psychology concerning the importance of morality to a person’s identity, typically construed as either a trait-like individual difference, or set of chronically accessible schemas.

References

  1. ↑ "Wisdom". Cambridge Dictionary. 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2024. the ability to use your knowledge and experience to make good decisions and judgments[.]
  2. 1 2 "Wisdom". Oxford English Dictionary. July 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2024. judging rightly in matters relating to life and conduct; soundness of judgement in the choice of means and ends; sometimes, less strictly, sound sense [...] Personified (almost always as feminine) [...] Knowledge (esp. of a high or abstruse kind); enlightenment, learning, erudition
  3. ↑ "Wise". Dictionary.com. 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2024. power of discerning and judging [...] what is true or right; possessing discernment, judgment, or discretion [...] judicious or prudent [...] learned; erudite [...] informed[.]
  4. ↑ "Wise". Merriam Webster. 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2024. deep understanding, keen discernment, and a capacity for sound judgment [...] Prudent [...] Knowing [...] Crafty, Shrewd [...] Insolent[.]
  5. ↑ Kekes, John (1983). "Wisdom". American Philosophical Quarterly. 20 (3): 277–286. JSTOR   20014008 . Retrieved 18 July 2024. In descriptive knowledge one knows facts; in interpretive knowledge one knows the significance of the descriptively known facts.
  6. ↑ Phillips, D. Z. (1969). "Wisdom's Gods". The Philosophical Quarterly. 19 (74): 15–32. doi:10.2307/2218185. JSTOR   2218185 . Retrieved 21 July 2024. Wisdom is saying, then, that although in one sense all the facts may be known, in another sense questions involving a greater apprehension of the facts may remain.
  7. ↑ Ardelt, Monika (2004). "Wisdom as Expert Knowledge System: A Critical Review of a Contemporary Operationalization of an Ancient Concept". Human Development. 47 (5): 257–285. doi:10.1159/000079154. JSTOR   26763810 . Retrieved 23 July 2024. Intellectual or theoretical knowledge is knowledge that is understood only at the intellectual level, whereas wisdom is understood at the experiential level.
  8. ↑ Baltes, Paul B.; Kunzmann, Ute (2004). "The Two Faces of Wisdom: Wisdom as a General Theory of Knowledge and Judgment about Excellence in Mind and Virtue vs. Wisdom as Everyday Realization in People and Products". Human Development. 47 (5): 290–299. doi:10.1159/000079156. JSTOR   26763812 . Retrieved 25 July 2024. Wisdom's functional consequences involve praxis-related behaviors: judgment, advice, and commentary in difficult and uncertain matters of life and life conduct.
  9. ↑ Lombardo, Thomas (2011). "Wisdom in the Twenty-First Century: A Theory Of Psycho-Social Evolution". World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues. 15 (1): 132–57. JSTOR   48504847 . Retrieved 25 July 2024. Wisdom may be defined as the continually evolving understanding of and fascination with the big picture of life, of what is important, ethical and meaningful and the desire and ability to apply this understanding to enhance the wellbeing of life, both for oneself and others.
  10. ↑ Ardelt, Monika (2004). "Wisdom as Expert Knowledge System: A Critical Review of a Contemporary Operationalization of an Ancient Concept". Human Development. 47 (5): 257–285. doi:10.1159/000079154. JSTOR   26763810 . Retrieved 25 July 2024. Wise people, [...] accept the positive as well as the negative side of reality [Assmann, 1994; Gadamer, 1960; Strijbos, 1995; Weinsheimer, 1985]. They are satisfied with their lives not because they concentrate only on its positive aspects but because they are aware of and can accept the reality of the present moment [Blanchard-Fields & Norris, 1995; Hart, 1987]. As a consequence, wise individuals can face even the most difficult situations with equanimity, such as the physical and social challenges that accompany old age [Ardelt, 1997, 2000a; Clayton, 1982; Kramer, 2000].
  11. ↑ Baltes, Paul B.; Smith, Jacqui (2008). "The Fascination of Wisdom: Its Nature, Ontogeny, and Function". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 3 (1): 56–64. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00062.x. JSTOR   40212228. PMID   26158670 . Retrieved 27 July 2024. Finally, wisdom is manifested in nonverbal and social behavior. Actions considered to be appropriate to confidential advice giving such as attentive listening, empathy, and tempered concern contribute to the attribution that a person is wise, especially if combined with older age and a wise verbal commentary (Stange, 2005).
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Grossmann, Igor (2017). "Wisdom in Context". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 12 (2): 233–257. doi:10.1177/1745691616672066. PMID   28346113. S2CID   26818408 . Retrieved 18 July 2024. Compromise [...] Intellectual humility [...] Recognition of uncertainty and change [...] Others' perspectives / broader contexts
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Staudinger, U.M.; Glück, J. (2011). "Psychological wisdom research: Commonalities and differences in a growing field". Annual Review of Psychology. 62: 215–241. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131659. PMID   20822439.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Walsh, Roger (June 2015). "What Is wisdom? Cross-cultural and cross-Disciplinary Syntheses". Review of General Psychology. 19 (3): 178–293. doi:10.1037/gpr0000045. S2CID   146383832.
  15. ↑ Meehan, Brenda (1996). "Wisdom/Sophia, Russian Identity, and Western Feminist Theology". CrossCurrents. 46 (2): 149–168. JSTOR   24460264 . Retrieved 21 July 2024.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Trowbridge, R.H. (May 2011). "Waiting for Sophia: 30 years of Conceptualizing Wisdom in Empirical Psychology". Research in Human Development. 8 (2): 111–117. doi:10.1080/15427609.2011.568872. S2CID   145371442.
  17. ↑ Glück, J. (October 2018). "Measuring Wisdom: Existing Approaches, Continuing Challenges, and New Developments". The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. 73 (8): 1393–1403. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbx140. PMC   6178965 . PMID   29281060.
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  19. ↑ Spurgeon, Charles Haddon (1871), The Fourfold Treasure, №991, Wisdom is, I suppose, the right use of knowledge. To know is not to be wise. Many men know a great deal, and are all the greater fools for it. There is no fool so great a fool as a knowing fool. But to know how to use knowledge is to have wisdom.
  20. ↑ Sutton, Robert I.; Hargadon, Andrew (1996). "Brainstorming Groups in Context: Effectiveness in a Product Design Firm". Administrative Science Quarterly . 41 (4): 685–718. doi:10.2307/2393872. JSTOR   2393872.
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  22. ↑ Karunamuni, N.D. (May 2015). "The Five-Aggregate Model of the Mind". Sage Open. 5 (2): 215824401558386. doi: 10.1177/2158244015583860 .
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Karunamuni, N.; Weerasekera, R. (2019). "Theoretical Foundations to Guide Mindfulness Meditation: A Path to Wisdom". Current Psychology. 38 (3): 627–646. doi:10.1007/s12144-017-9631-7. S2CID   149024504.
  24. ↑ Lewis, C.T.; Short, C. (1963). Latin Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-864201-5.
  25. ↑ Martorana, Paul V.; Smith, Charles H. (2016). "Cultivating The Sage's Creative Vision: Insights from Perennial Wisdom on Approaching Organizational Change and Sustainability". The Journal of Corporate Citizenship (62): 76–90. doi:10.9774/GLEAF.4700.2016.ju.00011 (inactive 2 December 2024). JSTOR   90003765 . Retrieved 25 July 2024. The core principle of perennial wisdom and of creative vision, life as a unity, is far different from our ordinary way of perceiving life through a dualistic lens. Yet the creativity spoken of here is not merely arbitrary. Rather, it emerges from a sense of being in touch with the needs of people and of a situation. As an expression of wisdom, creativity is balanced and informed by a strong sense of responsibility and an interest in contributing to, harmonizing with and bringing healing to one's surroundings.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
  26. ↑ Smith, Huston (1987). "Is There a Perennial Philosophy?". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 55 (3): 553–566. doi:10.1093/jaarel/LV.3.553. JSTOR   1464070 . Retrieved 25 July 2024. Perennialists are persons who are exceptionally sensitive to the commonalities that similarities disclose; they are drawn toward unity as moth to flame. [...] There is an Absolute, which is likewise Infinite. This Infinite both includes and transcends everything else, which everything is (in categorical contrast) finite and relative. The way the Absolute transcends the relative is to integrate the relative into itself so completely that even the Absolute/relative distinction gets annulled: form is emptiness, emptiness form. (This separates perennialism from the monism it is sometimes (mis)taken for; it is, rather, a-dvaita or non-dual).
  27. ↑ Gigerenzer, G.; Gaissmaier, W. (2011). "Heuristic Decision Making". Annual Review of Psychology. 62: 451–482. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145346. hdl: 11858/00-001M-0000-0024-F16D-5 . PMID   21126183 . Retrieved 26 July 2024. [Social heuristics] include imitation heuristics, tit-for-tat, the social-circle heuristic, and averaging the judgments of others to exploit the 'wisdom of crowds' (Hertwig & Herzog 2009). Imitate the-successful, for instance, speeds up learning of cue orders and can find orders that excel take-the-best's validity order (Garcia-Retamero et al. 2009).
  28. ↑ Hughes, Barnabas (1974). "Heuristic Teaching in Mathematics". Educational Studies in Mathematics. 5 (3): 291–299. doi:10.1007/BF00684704. JSTOR   3482053 . Retrieved 26 July 2024. The word heuristic [...] heuriskein, 'to discover' [...] 'a technique of discovery' [...] 'serving to guide, discover, or reveal' [...] 'the discovery method'. Mauritz Johnson (1966) observes that the idea is hardly new, and that, ignoring the classical accreditation of its use to Socrates in the Meno, one finds an early discussion of discovery learning by David P. Page in his Theory and Practice of Teaching in 1847 as well as by later writers, Herbert Spencer in 1860, Frank and Charles McMurry in 1897, and William Chandler Babley in 1905.
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  31. ↑ Carol, Sommer; Markopoulos, Panagiotis; Goggins, Shana (2013). "Mentoring master's level students: Drawing upon the wisdom of Athena as Mentor in Homer's Odyssey". Journal of Poetry Therapy. 26 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1080/08893675.2013.764049 . Retrieved 25 July 2024. [R]eference to Athena within the context of mentoring is not new (Roberts, 2000; Sambunjak & Marusic, 2009) [...] Athena appears in the guise of an old friend of Odysseus, whose name happens to be Mentor. She offers aid and advice to the young Telemachus. [...] In relationship to Telemachus, Athena (as Mentor) supported him by recognizing and fostering courage, hope, sense, bravery, and adeptness (Homer, trans. 1996, p. 102).
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  49. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Zhang, K.; Shi, J.; Wang, F. (2023). "Wisdom: Meaning, structure, types, arguments, and future concerns". Current Psychology. 42 (18): 15030–15051. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02816-6. PMC   8817649 . Since wisdom research in psychology began in the late 1970s (Clayton, 1975), many scientific theories about wisdom have emerged, including: (a) the Berlin wisdom paradigm (Baltes & Kunzmann, 2004; Baltes & Smith, 2008; Baltes & Staudinger, 1993, 2000; Scheibe et al., 2007), (b) the balance theory of wisdom (Sternberg, 1998, 2018), (c) the self-transcendence wisdom theory (Levenson et al., 2005), (d) the three-dimensional wisdom theory (Ardelt, 2003; Thomas et al., 2015), (e) the H.E.R.O.(E.) model of wisdom (Webster, 2003; Webster et al., 2014, 2017), (f) the process view of wisdom (Yang, 2008, 2013, 2016, 2017), and (g) the integrating virtue and wit theory of wisdom (Chen & Wang, 2013; Wang et al., 2019, pp. 376–378; Wang & Zheng, 2012, 2014, 2015).
  50. ↑ "Character education: our shared responsibility". U.S. Department of Education. 31 May 2005.
  51. ↑ Maxwell, Nicholas (2007). From Knowledge to Wisdom: A Revolution for Science and the Humanities. Pentire Press.
  52. ↑ "Friends of Wisdom". University College London. 21 February 2019. an association of people sympathetic to the idea that academic inquiry should help humanity acquire more wisdom by rational means
  53. ↑ Maxwell, Nicholas (2000), Can Humanity Learn to become Civilized? The Crisis of Science without Civilization
  54. ↑ Baltes, Paul B.; Staudinger, Ursula M. (2000). "Wisdom: A Metaheuristic (Pragmatic) to Orchestrate Mind and Virtue Toward Excellence". American Psychologist. 55 (1): 122–136. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.122. hdl: 11858/00-001M-0000-0025-9C51-4 . PMID   11392856 . Retrieved 27 July 2024. Theoretical and empirical work on explicit psychological theories of wisdom can be roughly divided into three groups: (a) the conceptualization of wisdom as a personal characteristic or constellation of personality dispositions (e.g., Erikson, 1959; McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1998), (b) the conceptualization of wisdom in the neo-Piagetian tradition of postformal and dialectical thought (e.g., Alex ander & Langer, 1990; Labouvie-Vief, 1990), and (c) the conceptualization of wisdom as an expert system dealing with the meaning and conduct of life (P. Baltes & Smith, 1990; Dittmann-Kohli & Baltes, 1990; Staudinger & Baltes, 1994).
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  93. ↑ "Yazna 31". Sacred Liturgy and Gathas/Hymns of Zarathushtra.
  94. ↑ "Asl-i-Kullu'l-Khayr (Words of Wisdom)". Bahai Reference Library. Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (pocket-size ed.). US Bahá’í Publishing Trust. 1988. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
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  97. ↑ Proverbs 2:6
  98. ↑ Ecclesiastes 1:2–18
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  101. ↑ 1 Corinthians 1:17–31
  102. ↑ Isaiah 11:2–3
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  108. ↑ Bonechi, Marco (2016). "87) The Pregnant Woman in the Archaic Hymn to Shamash of Sippar" (PDF). Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires (4): 147–150. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 August 2019.
  109. ↑ Lawson, Jack Newton. (2001). "Mesopotamian precursors to the Stoic concept of logic". Melammu Symposia 2. Myth and Mythologies: Methodological Approaches to Intercultural Influences. [Melammu Project]. OCLC   714111111.
  110. ↑ Scott, David (1998). "The Perennial Message of 'the Goddess': Enduring Themes down the Ages in Bactria". East and West. 48 (1/2): 27–39. JSTOR   29757365 . Retrieved 25 July 2024. In the Garuda Purana 1.7.9, one of the manifestations of the energy of Sarasvati was medha (wisdom), an identification repeated with respect to the Goddess in the Devi Mahatmya 1.11. Thus it is no surprise to find with Anahita, in verse 86 of her Aban Yast, that 'the priests (athravans) who read and the pupils of the priest will beg of thee knowledge'.
  111. ↑ Jannel, Romaric (May 2022). "Xuanzang and the Three Types of Wisdom: Learning, Reasoning, and Cultivating in Yogācāra Thought". Religions. 13 (6): 486. doi: 10.3390/rel13060486 .
  112. ↑ AN 3:2
  113. ↑ AN 4:115
  114. ↑ Dhammapada v. 256
  115. ↑ Dhammapada v. 257
  116. ↑ Dhammapada v. 258
  117. ↑ Dhammapada v. 268–269
  118. ↑ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.28
  119. ↑ Chinese Text Project, trans. James Legge.
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