Spirituality

Last updated

The meaning of spirituality has developed and expanded over time, and various meanings can be found alongside each other. [1] [2] [3] [note 1] Traditionally, spirituality is referred to a religious process of re-formation which "aims to recover the original shape of man", [note 2] oriented at "the image of God" [4] [5] as exemplified by the founders and sacred texts of the religions of the world. The term was used within early Christianity to refer to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit [6] and broadened during the Late Middle Ages to include mental aspects of life. [7] [8]

Contents

In modern times, the term both spread to other religious traditions [9] and broadened to refer to a wider range of experiences, including a range of esoteric and religious traditions. Modern usages tend to refer to a subjective experience of a sacred dimension, [10] and the "deepest values and meanings by which people live", [11] [12] often in a context separate from organized religious institutions. [6] This may involve belief in a supernatural realm beyond the ordinarily observable world, [13] personal growth, [14] a quest for an ultimate or sacred meaning, [15] religious experience, [16] or an encounter with one's own "inner dimension" or spirit. [17]

Etymology

The term spirit means "animating or vital principle in man and animals". [web 1] It is derived from the Old French espirit, which comes from the Latin word spiritus (soul, ghost, courage, vigor, breath) and is related to spirare (to breathe). In the Vulgate, the Latin word spiritus is used to translate the Greek pneuma and Hebrew ruach . [web 1]

The term "spiritual", meaning "concerning the spirit", is derived from Old French spirituel (12c.), which is derived from Latin spiritualis, which comes by spiritus or "spirit". [web 2]

The term "spirituality" is derived from Middle French spiritualité, from Late Latin spiritualitatem (nominative spiritualitas), which is also derived from Latin spiritualis. [web 3]

Definition

There is no single, widely agreed-upon definition of spirituality. [2] [3] [note 1] Surveys of the definition of the term, as used in scholarly research, show a broad range of definitions with limited overlap. [1] A survey of reviews by McCarroll, each dealing with the topic of spirituality, gave twenty-seven explicit definitions among which "there was little agreement". [1] This causes some difficulty in trying to study spirituality systematically; i.e., it impedes both understanding and the capacity to communicate findings in a meaningful fashion.

According to Kees Waaijman, the traditional meaning of spirituality is a process of re-formation that "aims to recover the original shape of man, the image of God. To accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the original shape: in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity there is Christ, for Buddhism, Buddha, and in Islam, Muhammad." [note 2] Houtman and Aupers suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions, and Eastern religions. [14]

In modern times the emphasis is on subjective experience [10] and the "deepest values and meanings by which people live", [11] [12] incorporating personal growth or transformation, usually in a context separate from organized religious institutions. [6] Spirituality can be defined generally as an individual's search for ultimate or sacred meaning, and purpose in life. [15] Additionally it can mean to seek out or search for personal growth, religious experience, belief in a supernatural realm or afterlife, or to make sense of one's own "inner dimension". [13] [14] [16] [17]

Development of the meaning of spirituality

Classical, medieval, and early modern periods

Bergomi detects "an enlightened form of non-religious spirituality" in late antiquity. [18]

In ancient Rome, the concept of spirituality consisted mainly of the pax deorum (the peace of the gods), this was achieved through rituals and festivals that ensured divine favour and cosmic order. [19] While Roman spirituality was communal, it also involved personal engagement with the divine through the study of mythology and philosophy. Myths served as allegories for moral lessons and models for personal conduct, guiding individuals in their relationship with the gods. [20] The influence of Pythagorean philosophy, especially the Golden Verses, encouraged introspection, self-discipline, and ethical living. This blend of myth, philosophy, and ritual shaped a spirituality focused on both societal harmony and personal connection with the divine. [21]

Words translatable as "spirituality" first began to arise in the 5th century and only entered common use toward the end of the Middle Ages. [22] [ need quotation to verify ] In a Biblical context the term means being animated by God. [23] The New Testament offers the concept of being driven by the Holy Spirit, as opposed to living a life in which one rejects this influence. [6]

In the 11th century, this meaning of "Spirituality" changed. Instead, the word began to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed to the material and sensual aspects of life, "the ecclesiastical sphere of light against the dark world of matter". [24] [note 3] In the 13th century "spirituality" acquired a social and psychological meaning. Socially it denoted the territory of the clergy: "the ecclesiastical against the temporary possessions, the ecclesiastical against the secular authority, the clerical class against the secular class". [25] [note 4] Psychologically, it denoted the realm of the inner life: "the purity of motives, affections, intentions, inner dispositions, the psychology of the spiritual life, the analysis of the feelings". [26] [note 5]

In the 17th and 18th centuries, a distinction was made[ by whom? ] between higher and lower forms of spirituality: [27] "A spiritual man is one who is Christian 'more abundantly and deeper than others'." [26] [note 6] The word was also associated with mysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative meaning. [28]

Modern spirituality

Modern notions of spirituality developed throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, mixing Christian ideas with Western esoteric traditions and elements of Asian, especially Indian, religions. Spirituality became increasingly disconnected from traditional religious organizations and institutions. It is sometimes associated today with philosophical, social, or political movements such as liberalism, feminist theology, and green politics. [29]

Modern Roman religion

In modern Roman neopagan spirituality, initiation is a central element that facilitates deeper spiritual development and access to sacred knowledge. [30] It is viewed as a transformative process, guiding the initiate through stages of spiritual growth. Initiation introduces the individual to the esoteric meanings of Roman myths, deities, and the concept of pax deorum (peace of the gods), [31] aligning the individual with cosmic order. This process not only prepares the initiate for participation in rituals but also emphasizes personal alignment with the divine will. As such, initiation is both a rite of passage and a means to engage meaningfully with divine forces, ensuring the individual's spiritual preparedness to uphold the traditions of Roman religious practice. [32]

Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universalism

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field. [33] He was one of the major figures in Transcendentalism, an early 19th-century liberal Protestant movement, which was rooted in English and German Romanticism, the Biblical criticism of Johann Gottfried Herder and Friedrich Schleiermacher, the skepticism of Hume, [web 4] and Neoplatonism. [34] [35] The Transcendentalists emphasized an intuitive, experiential approach to religion. [web 5] Following Schleiermacher, [36] an individual's intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth. [web 5] In the late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking. [web 5] They also endorsed universalist and Unitarianist ideas, leading to Unitarian Universalism, the idea that there must be truth in other religions as well since a loving God would redeem all living beings, not just Christians. [web 5] [web 6]

Theosophy, anthroposophy, and the perennial philosophy

A major influence on modern spirituality was the Theosophical Society, which searched for 'secret teachings' in Asian religions. [37] It has been influential on modernist streams in several Asian religions, notably Neo-Vedanta, the revival of Theravada Buddhism, and Buddhist modernism, which have taken over modern western notions of personal experience and universalism and integrated them in their religious concepts. [37] A second, related influence was Anthroposophy, whose founder, Rudolf Steiner, was particularly interested in developing a genuine Western spirituality, and in the ways that such a spirituality could transform practical institutions such as education, agriculture, and medicine. [38] [39] More independently, the spiritual science of Martinus was an influence, especially in Scandinavia. [40]

The influence of Asian traditions on Western modern spirituality was also furthered by the perennial philosophy, whose main proponent Aldous Huxley was deeply influenced by Swami Vivekananda's Neo-Vedanta and universalism, [41] and the spread of social welfare, education and mass travel after World War II.

Neo-Vedanta

An important influence on western spirituality was Neo-Vedanta, also called neo-Hinduism [42] and Hindu Universalism, [43] a modern interpretation of Hinduism which developed in response to western colonialism and orientalism. It aims to present Hinduism as a "homogenized ideal of Hinduism" [44] with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine. [45] Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity. [37] Unitarianism, and the idea of Universalism, was brought to India by missionaries, and had a major influence on neo-Hinduism via Ram Mohan Roy's Brahmo Samaj and Brahmoism. Roy attempted to modernise and reform Hinduism, from the idea of Universalism. [46] This universalism was further popularised, and brought back to the west as neo-Vedanta, by Swami Vivekananda. [46]

"Spiritual but not religious"

After the Second World War, spirituality and theistic religion became increasingly disconnected, [26] and spirituality became more oriented on subjective experience, instead of "attempts to place the self within a broader ontological context". [10] A new discourse developed, in which (humanistic) psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions and eastern religions are being blended, to reach the true self by self-disclosure, free expression, and meditation. [14]

The distinction between the spiritual and the religious became more common in the popular mind during the late 20th century with the rise of secularism and the advent of the New Age movement. Authors such as Chris Griscom and Shirley MacLaine explored it in numerous ways in their books. Paul Heelas noted the development within New Age circles of what he called "seminar spirituality": [47] structured offerings complementing consumer choice with spiritual options.

Among other factors, declining membership of organized religions and the growth of secularism in the western world have given rise to this broader view of spirituality. [48] The term "spiritual" is now frequently used in contexts in which the term "religious" was formerly employed. [9] Both theists and atheists have criticized this development. [49] [50]

Traditional spirituality

Abrahamic faiths

Judaism

Spirituality in Judaism (Hebrew : רוחניות, romanized: ruhniyut) [51] may involve practices of Jewish ethics, Jewish prayer, Jewish meditation, Shabbat and holiday observance, Torah study, dietary laws, teshuvah, and other practices. [52] [53] [web 7] It may involve practices ordained by halakhah or other practices. [52]

Kabbalah (literally "receiving") is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought of Judaism. Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal and mysterious Ein Sof (no end) and the mortal and finite universe (his creation). Interpretations of Kabbalistic spirituality are found within Hasidic Judaism, a branch of Orthodox Judaism founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov. Hasidism often emphasizes the Immanent Divine presence and focuses on emotion, fervour, and the figure of the Tzadik. This movement included an elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine Panentheism. [54] [55]

The Musar movement is a Jewish spiritual movement that has focused on developing character traits such as faith, humility, and love. The Musar movement, first founded in the 19th century by Israel Salanter and developed in the 21st century by Alan Morinis and Ira F. Stone, has encouraged spiritual practices of Jewish meditation, Jewish prayer, Jewish ethics, tzedakah, teshuvah, and the study of musar (ethical) literature. [56]

Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism have often emphasized the spirituality of Jewish ethics and tikkun olam, [57] [58] feminist spirituality, [59] [60] Jewish prayer, [61] [62] Torah study, [63] [64] ritual, [65] [66] and musar. [56] [67]

Christianity

Union with Christ is the purpose of Christian mysticism. Risen Christ appears to Mary.jpg
Union with Christ is the purpose of Christian mysticism.

Christian spirituality is the spiritual practice of living out a personal faith. Pope Francis offers several ways in which the calling of Christian spirituality can be considered:

  • "Christian spirituality proposes an alternative understanding of the quality of life, and encourages a prophetic and contemplative lifestyle, one capable of deep enjoyment free of the obsession with consumption";
  • "Christian spirituality proposes a growth marked by moderation and the capacity to be happy with little." [68] : Paragraph 222 
  • Work, with an understanding of its meaning, and relaxation are both important dimensions of Christian spirituality. [68] : Paragraph 237 

The terminology of the Catholic Church refers to an act of faith (fides qua creditur) following the acceptance of faith (fides quae creditur). Although all Catholics are expected to pray together at Mass, there are many different forms of spirituality and private prayer which have developed over the centuries. Each of the major religious orders of the Catholic Church and other lay groupings have their own unique spirituality – its own way of approaching God in prayer and in living out the Gospel.

Christian mysticism refers to the development of mystical practices and theory within Christianity. It has often been connected to mystical theology, especially in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions. The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is studied and practiced are varied and range from ecstatic visions of the soul's mystical union with God to simple prayerful contemplation of Holy Scripture (i.e., Lectio Divina ).

Progressive Christianity is a contemporary movement which seeks to remove the supernatural claims of the faith and replace them with a post-critical understanding of biblical spirituality based on historical and scientific research. It focuses on the lived experience of spirituality over historical dogmatic claims, and accepts that the faith is both true and a human construction, and that spiritual experiences are psychologically and neurally real and useful.

Islam

An inner spiritual struggle and an outer physical struggle are two commonly accepted meanings of the Arabic word jihad : [69] The "greater jihad" is the inner struggle by a believer to fulfill his religious duties and fight against one's ego. [69] [web 8] This non-violent meaning is stressed by both Muslim and non-Muslim authors. [70] [71]

Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi, an 11th-century Islamic scholar, referenced a statement by the companion of Muhammad, Jabir ibn Abd-Allah:

The Prophet ... returned from one of his battles, and thereupon told us, 'You have arrived with an excellent arrival, you have come from the Lesser Jihad to the Greater Jihad – the striving of a servant (of Allah) against his desires (holy war)." [web 8] [72] [note 7]

Sufism

The best known form of Islamic mystic spirituality is the Sufi tradition (famous through Rumi and Hafiz) in which a Sheikh or pir transmits spiritual discipline to students. [73]

Sufism or taṣawwuf (Arabic : تصوّف) is defined by its adherents as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam. [74] [75] [76] A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a ṣūfī (صُوفِيّ). Sufis believe they are practicing ihsan (perfection of worship) as revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad,

Worship and serve Allah as you are seeing Him and while you see Him not yet truly He sees you.

Sufis consider themselves as the original true proponents of this pure original form of Islam. They are strong adherents to the principal of tolerance, peace and against any form of violence. The Sufi have suffered severe persecution by more rigid and fundamentalist groups such as the Wahhabi and Salafi movement. In 1843 the Senussi Sufi were forced to flee Mecca and Medina and head to Sudan and Libya. [77]

Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God". [78] Alternatively, in the words of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibn Ajiba, "a science through which one can know how to travel into the presence of the Divine, purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits". [79]

Indian religions

Jainism

Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion. The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (non-attachment). Jains take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (sexual continence), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto and the Ṇamōkāra mantra is its most common and basic prayer.

Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four leaders or Tirthankaras, with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva, whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago; the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha, whom historians date to 9th century BCE; and the twenty-fourth tirthankara, Mahavira around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered to be an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology.

Buddhism

Buddhist practices are known as Bhavana, which literally means "development" or "cultivating" [80] or "producing" [81] [82] in the sense of "calling into existence". [83] It is an important concept in Buddhist praxis (Patipatti). The word bhavana normally appears in conjunction with another word forming a compound phrase such as citta-bhavana (the development or cultivation of the heart/mind) or metta-bhavana (the development/cultivation of loving kindness). When used on its own bhavana signifies 'spiritual cultivation' generally.

Various Buddhist paths to liberation developed throughout the ages. Best-known is the Noble Eightfold Path, but others include the Bodhisattva Path and Lamrim.

Hinduism

Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophets nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, henotheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, or atheistic. [84] Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as ksaitrajña (Sanskrit : क्षैत्रज्ञ [85] ). It defines spiritual practice as one's journey towards moksha, awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, Ultimate reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content. [86] [87]

Four paths
Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg
Jñāna marga
Russian Hare Krishnas singing on the street.jpg
Bhakti marga
People of Varanasi 006.jpg
Rāja marga
Three of four paths of spirituality in Hinduism

Traditionally, Hinduism identifies three mārga (ways) [88] [note 8] of spiritual practice, [89] namely Jñāna (ज्ञान), the way of knowledge; Bhakti, the way of devotion; and Karma yoga, the way of selfless action. In the 19th century Vivekananda, in his neo-Vedanta synthesis of Hinduism, added Rāja yoga, the way of contemplation and meditation, as a fourth way, calling all of them "yoga". [90] [note 9]

Jñāna marga is a path often assisted by a guru (teacher) in one's spiritual practice. [92] Bhakti marga is a path of faith and devotion to deity or deities; the spiritual practice often includes chanting, singing and music – such as in kirtans – in front of idols, or images of one or more deity, or a devotional symbol of the holy. [93] Karma marga is the path of one's work, where diligent practical work or vartta (Sanskrit : वार्त्ता, profession) becomes in itself a spiritual practice, and work in daily life is perfected as a form of spiritual liberation and not for its material rewards. [94] [note 10] Rāja marga is the path of cultivating necessary virtues, self-discipline, tapas (meditation), contemplation and self-reflection sometimes with isolation and renunciation of the world, to a pinnacle state called samādhi . [96] [97] This state of samādhi has been compared to peak experience. [98]

There is a rigorous debate in Indian literature on relative merits of these theoretical spiritual practices. For example, Chandogyopanishad suggests that those who engage in ritualistic offerings to gods and priests will fail in their spiritual practice, while those who engage in tapas will succeed; Shvetashvatara Upanishad suggests that a successful spiritual practice requires a longing for truth, but warns of becoming 'false ascetic' who go through the mechanics of spiritual practice without meditating on the nature of Self and universal Truths. [99] In the practice of Hinduism, suggest modern era scholars such as Vivekananda, the choice between the paths is up to the individual and a person's proclivities. [87] [100] Other scholars [101] suggest that these Hindu spiritual practices are not mutually exclusive, but overlapping. These four paths of spirituality are also known in Hinduism outside India, such as in Balinese Hinduism, where it is called Chatur Marga (literally: four paths). [102]

Schools and spirituality

Different schools of Hinduism encourage different spiritual practices. In Tantric school for example, the spiritual practice has been referred to as sādhanā . It involves initiation into the school, undergoing rituals, and achieving moksha liberation by experiencing union of cosmic polarities. [103] The Hare Krishna school emphasizes bhakti yoga as spiritual practice. [104] In Advaita Vedanta school, the spiritual practice emphasizes jñāna yoga in stages: samnyasa (cultivate virtues), sravana (hear, study), manana (reflect) and dhyana (nididhyasana, contemplate). [105]

Sikhism

An 18th century Sikh Raja Raja Fateh Singh Ahluwalia of Kapurthala.jpg
An 18th century Sikh Raja

Sikhism considers spiritual life and secular life to be intertwined: [106] "In the Sikh Weltanschauung ... the temporal world is part of the Infinite Reality and partakes of its characteristics." [107] Guru Nanak described living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" as being higher than a purely contemplative life. [108]

The 6th Sikh Guru Guru Hargobind re-affirmed that the political/temporal (Miri) and spiritual (Piri) realms are mutually coexistent. [109] According to the 9th Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadhur, the ideal Sikh should have both Shakti (power that resides in the temporal), and Bhakti (spiritual meditative qualities). This was developed into the concept of the Saint Soldier by the 10th Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh. [110]

According to Guru Nanak, the goal is to attain the "attendant balance of separation-fusion, self-other, action-inaction, attachment-detachment, in the course of daily life", [111] the polar opposite to a self-centered existence. [111] Nanak talks further about the one God or akal (timelessness) that permeates all life [112] ). [113] [114] and which must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the 'heart', of a human being. [115]

In Sikhism there is no dogma, [116] priests, monastics or yogis.

African spirituality

In some African contexts,[ which? ] spirituality is considered a belief system that guides the welfare of society and the people therein, and eradicates sources of unhappiness occasioned by evil. [117] In traditional society prior to colonization and extensive introduction to Christianity or Islam, religion was the strongest element in society influencing the thinking and actions of the people. Hence spirituality was a sub-domain of religion. [118] Despite the rapid social, economic and political changes of the last century, traditional religion remains the essential background for many African people. And that religion is a communal given, not an individual choice. Religion gives all of life its meaning and provides ground for action. Each person is "a living creed of his religion". There is no concern for spiritual matters apart from ones physical and communal life. Life continues after death but remains focused on pragmatic family and community matters.

Contemporary spirituality

The term spiritual has frequently become used in contexts in which the term religious was formerly employed. [9] Contemporary spirituality is also called "post-traditional spirituality" and "New Age spirituality". [119] Hanegraaf makes a distinction between two "New Age" movements: New Age in a restricted sense, which originated primarily in mid-twentieth century England and had its roots in Theosophy and Anthroposophy, and "New Age" in a general sense, which emerged in the later 1970s:

when increasing numbers of people ... began to perceive a broad similarity between a wide variety of "alternative ideas" and pursuits, and started to think of them as part of one "movement". [120]

Those who speak of spirituality outside of religion often define themselves as spiritual but not religious and generally believe in the existence of different "spiritual paths", emphasizing the importance of finding one's own individual path to spirituality. According to one 2005 poll, about 24% of the United States population identifies itself as "spiritual but not religious". [web 9]

Lockwood draws attention to the variety of spiritual experience in the contemporary West:

The new Western spiritual landscape, characterised by consumerism and choice abundance, is scattered with novel religious manifestations based in psychology and the Human Potential Movement, each offering participants a pathway to the Self. [121]

Characteristics

Modern spirituality centers on the "deepest values and meanings by which people live". [122] It often embraces the idea of an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality. [123] It envisions an inner path enabling a person to discover the essence of his or her being.

Not all modern notions of spirituality embrace transcendental ideas. Secular spirituality emphasizes humanistic ideas on moral character (qualities such as love, compassion, patience, tolerance, forgiveness, contentment, responsibility, harmony, and a concern for others). [124] : 22  These are aspects of life and human experience which go beyond a purely materialist view of the world without necessarily accepting belief in a supernatural reality or any divine being. Nevertheless, many humanists (e.g. Bertrand Russell, Jean-Paul Sartre) who clearly value the non-material, communal, and virtuous aspects of life reject this usage of the term "spirituality" as being overly-broad (i.e. it effectively amounts to saying "everything and anything that is good and virtuous is necessarily spiritual"). [125] In 1930 Russell, a self-described agnostic renowned as an atheist, wrote "... one's ego is no very large part of the world. The man who can centre his thoughts and hopes upon something transcending self can find a certain peace in the ordinary troubles of life which is impossible to the pure egoist." [126] Similarly, Aristotle – one of the first known Western thinkers to demonstrate that morality, virtue and goodness can be derived without appealing to supernatural forces – argued that "men create Gods in their own image" (not the other way around). Moreover, theistic and atheistic critics alike dismiss the need for the "secular spirituality" label on the basis that it appears to be nothing more than obscurantism in that:[ citation needed ]

Although personal well-being, both physical and psychological, is said[ by whom? ] to be an important aspect of modern spirituality, this does not imply spirituality is essential to achieving happiness (e.g. see Archived 2015-10-13 at the Wayback Machine ). Free-thinkers who reject notions that the numinous or non-material is important to living well can be just as happy as more spiritually-oriented individuals (see) [127] [ need quotation to verify ]

Contemporary proponents of spirituality may suggest that spirituality develops inner peace and forms a foundation for happiness. For example, meditation and similar practices are suggested to help the practitioner cultivate a personal inner life and character. [128] [ unreliable source? ] [129] Ellison and Fan (2008) assert that spirituality causes a wide array of positive health outcomes, including "morale, happiness, and life satisfaction". [130] However, Schuurmans-Stekhoven (2013) actively attempted to replicate this research and found more "mixed" results. [131] [ need quotation to verify ] Nevertheless, spirituality has played a central role in some self-help movements such as Alcoholics Anonymous:

if an alcoholic failed to perfect and enlarge his spiritual life through work and self-sacrifice for others, he could not survive the certain trials and low spots ahead [132]

Such spiritually-informed treatment approaches have been challenged as pseudoscience. [133]

Spiritual experience

Spiritual experiences play a central role in modern spirituality. [36] Both western and Asian authors have popularised this notion. [134] [135] Important early-20th century Western writers who studied the phenomenon of spirituality, and their works, include William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) and Rudolph Otto, especially The Idea of the Holy (1917)

James' notions of "spiritual experience" had a further influence on the modernist streams in Asian traditions, making them even further recognisable for a western audience. [36]

William James popularized the use of the term "religious experience" in his The Varieties of Religious Experience. [134] He has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which allegedly grants knowledge. [web 10]

Wayne Proudfoot traces the roots of the notion of "religious experience" further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. Schleiermacher used the idea of "religious experience" to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. Many scholars of religion, of whom William James was the most influential, adopted the concept. [136]

Major Asian influences on contemporary spirituality have included Swami Vivekananda [137] (1863–1902) and D. T. Suzuki. [36] (1870–1966) Vivekananda popularised a modern syncretic Hinduism, [138] [135] in which an emphasis on personal experience replaced the authority of scriptures. [135] [139] Suzuki had a major influence on the popularisation of Zen in the west and popularized the idea of enlightenment as insight into a timeless, transcendent reality. [web 11] [web 12] [37] Other influences came through Paul Brunton's A Search in Secret India (1934), [140] which introduced Ramana Maharshi (1879–1950) and Meher Baba (1894–1969) to a western audience.

Spiritual experiences can include being connected to a larger reality, yielding a more comprehensive self; joining with other individuals or the human community; with nature or the cosmos; or with the divine realm. [141]

Spiritual practices

Kees Waaijman discerns four forms of spiritual practices: [142]

  1. Somatic practices, especially deprivation and diminishment. Deprivation aims to purify the body. Diminishment concerns the repulsement of ego-oriented impulses. Examples include fasting and poverty. [142]
  2. Psychological practices, for example meditation. [143]
  3. Social practices. Examples include the practice of obedience and communal ownership, reforming ego-orientedness into other-orientedness. [143]
  4. Spiritual. All practices aim at purifying ego-centeredness, and direct the abilities at the divine reality. [143]

Spiritual practices may include meditation, mindfulness, prayer, the contemplation of sacred texts, ethical development, [124] and spiritual retreats in a convent. Love and/or compassion are often[ quantify ] described[ by whom? ] as the mainstay of spiritual development. [124]

Within spirituality is also found "a common emphasis on the value of thoughtfulness, tolerance for breadth and practices and beliefs, and appreciation for the insights of other religious communities, as well as other sources of authority within the social sciences." [144]

Scientific research

Health and well-being

Various studies (most originating from North America) have reported a positive correlation between spirituality and mental well-being in both healthy people and those encountering a range of physical illnesses or psychological disorders. [145] [146] [147] [148] Although spiritual individuals tend to be optimistic, [149] report greater social support, [150] and experience higher intrinsic meaning in life, [151] strength, and inner peace, [152] whether the correlation represents a causal link remains contentious. Both supporters and opponents of this claim agree that past statistical findings are difficult to interpret, in large part because of the ongoing disagreement over how spirituality should be defined and measured. [131] There is also evidence that an agreeable/positive temperament and/or a tendency toward sociability (which all correlate with spirituality) might actually be the key psychological features that predispose people to subsequently adopt a spiritual orientation and that these characteristics, not spiritually per se, add to well-being. There is also some suggestion that the benefits associated with spirituality and religiosity might arise from being a member of a close-knit community. Social bonds available via secular sources (i.e., not unique to spirituality or faith-based groups) might just as effectively raise well-being. In sum, spirituality may not be the "active ingredient" (i.e., past association with psychological well-being measures might reflect a reverse causation or effects from other variables that correlate with spirituality), [125] [153] [154] [155] [156] [157] [158] and that the effects of agreeableness, conscientiousness, or virtue – personality traits common in many non-spiritual people yet known to be slightly more common among the spiritual – may better account for spirituality's apparent correlation with mental health and social support. [125] [159] [160] [161] [162]

Intercessionary prayer

Masters and Spielmans [163] conducted a meta-analysis of all the available and reputable research examining the effects of distant intercessory prayer. They found no discernible health effects from being prayed for by others. In fact, one large and scientifically rigorous study by Herbert Benson and colleagues [164] revealed that intercessory prayer had no effect on recovery from cardiac arrest, but patients told people were praying for them actually had an increased risk of medical complications.

Spiritual care in health care professions

In the health-care professions there is growing[ quantify ] interest in "spiritual care", to complement the medical-technical approaches and to improve the outcomes of medical treatments. [165] [166] Puchalski et al. argue for "compassionate systems of care" in a spiritual context.

Spiritual experiences

Neuroscientists have examined brain functioning during reported spiritual experiences [167] [168] finding that certain neurotransmitters and specific areas of the brain are involved. [169] [170] [171] [172] Moreover, experimenters have also successfully induced spiritual experiences in individuals by administering psychoactive agents known to elicit euphoria and perceptual distortions. [173] [174] Conversely, religiosity and spirituality can also be dampened by electromagnetic stimulation of the brain. [175] These results have motivated some leading theorists to speculate that spirituality may be a benign subtype of psychosis [153] [web 13] [176] [177] [178] [179] – benign in the sense that the same aberrant sensory perceptions that those suffering clinical psychoses evaluate as distressingly incongruent and inexplicable are instead interpreted by spiritual individuals as positive (personal and meaningful transcendent experiences). [177] [178]

Measurement

Considerable debate persists about – among other factors – spirituality's relation to religion, the number and content of its dimensions, its relation to concepts of well-being, and its universality. [180] A number of research groups have developed instruments which attempt to measure spirituality quantitatively, including unidimensional (e.g. the Character Strength Inventory—Spirituality [181] and the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale) and multi-dimensional (e.g. Spiritual Transcendence Scale (STS) and the Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality (BMMRS)) scales. MacDonald et al. gave an "Expressions of Spirituality Inventory" (ESI-R) measuring five dimensions of spirituality to over 4000 persons across eight countries. The study results and interpretation highlighted the complexity and challenges of measurement of spirituality cross-culturally. [180]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 See:
    * Koenig et al.: "There is no widely agreed on definition of spirituality today". [2]
    * Cobb et al.: "The spiritual dimension is deeply subjective and there is no authoritative definition of spirituality". [3]
  2. 1 2 Waaijman [4] [5] uses the word "omvorming", "to change the form". Different translations are possible: transformation, re-formation, trans-mutation.
  3. ↑ In Dutch: "de hemelse lichtsfeer tegenover de duistere wereld van de materie". [24]
  4. ↑ In Dutch: "de kerkelijke tegenover de tijdelijke goederen, het kerkelijk tegenover het wereldlijk gezag, de geestelijke stand tegenover de lekenstand". [25]
  5. ↑ In Dutch: "Zuiverheid van motieven, affecties, wilsintenties, innerlijke disposities, de psychologie van het geestelijk leven, de analyse van de gevoelens". [26]
  6. ↑ In Dutch: "Een spiritueel mens is iemand die 'overvloediger en dieper dan de anderen' christen is". [26]
  7. ↑ This reference gave rise to the distinguishing of two forms of jihad: "greater" and "lesser". Some Islamic scholars dispute the authenticity of this reference and consider the meaning of jihad as a holy war to be more important. [web 8]
  8. ↑ See also Bhagavad Gita (The Celestial Song), Chapters 2:56–57, 12, 13:1–28
  9. ↑ Georg Feuerstein: "Yoga is not easy to define. In most general terms, the Sanskrit word yoga stands for spiritual discipline in Hinduism, Jainism, and certain schools of Buddhism. (...). Yoga is the equivalent of Christian mysticism, Moslem Sufism, or the Jewish Kabbalah. A spiritual practitioner is known as a yogin (if male) or a yogini (if female)." [91]
  10. ↑ Klaus Klostermaier discusses examples from Bhagavata Purana, another ancient Hindu scripture, where a forest worker discovers observing mother nature is a spiritual practice, to wisdom and liberating knowledge. The Purana suggests that "true knowledge of nature" leads to "true knowledge of Self and God." It illustrates 24 gurus that nature provides. For example, earth teaches steadfastness and the wisdom that all things while pursuing their own activities, do nothing but follow the divine laws that are universally established; another wisdom from earth is her example of accepting the good and bad from everyone. Another guru, the honeybee teaches that one must make effort to gain knowledge, a willingness and flexibility to examine, pick and collect essence from different scriptures and sources. And so on. Nature is a mirror image of spirit, perceptive awareness of nature can be spirituality. [95]

Related Research Articles

Hinduism is an umbrella term for a range of Indian religious and spiritual traditions (sampradayas) that are unified by adherence to the concept of dharma, a cosmic order maintained by its followers through rituals and righteous living, as first expounded in the Vedas. The word Hindu is an exonym, and while Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, it has also been described by the modern term Sanātana Dharma emphasizing its eternal nature. Another endonym for Hinduism is Vaidika Dharma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yoga</span> Spiritual practices from ancient India

Yoga is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines that originated in ancient India, aimed at controlling body and mind to attain various salvation goals, as practiced in the Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist traditions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Swami Vivekananda</span> Indian Hindu monk and philosopher (1863–1902)

Swami Vivekananda, born Narendranath Datta was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the introduction of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world. He is credited with raising interfaith awareness and bringing Hinduism to the status of a major world religion in the late nineteenth century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guru</span> Spiritual teacher and guide

Guru is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential figure to the disciple or student, with the guru serving as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student". Whatever language it is written in, Judith Simmer-Brown says that a tantric spiritual text is often codified in an obscure twilight language so that it cannot be understood by anyone without the verbal explanation of a qualified teacher, the guru. A guru is also one's spiritual guide, who helps one to discover the same potentialities that the guru has already realized.

Moksha, also called vimoksha, vimukti, and mukti, is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, liberation, nirvana, or release. In its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth. In its epistemological and psychological senses, moksha is freedom from ignorance: self-realization, self-actualization and self-knowledge.

Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of Indian philosophical systems that developed in tandem with early Hindu religious traditions during the iron and classical ages of India. In Indian tradition, the word used for philosophy is Darshana, from the Sanskrit root 'दृश' meaning 'to see, to experience'.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to spirituality:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jnana yoga</span> One of three classical paths for moksha in Hinduism

Jnana yoga, also known as the jnanamarga, is one of the three classical paths (margas) for moksha (liberation) in the Bhagavad Gita, which emphasizes the "path of knowledge", also known as the "path of self-realization". The other two are karma yoga and bhakti yoga. Modern interpretations of Hindu texts have yielded systems, techniques and formulations such as raja yoga and kriya yoga.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Karma yoga</span> Spiritual path in Hinduism

Karma yoga, also called Karma marga, is one of the three classical spiritual paths mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita, one based on the "yoga of action", the others being Jnana yoga and Bhakti yoga. To a karma yogi, right action is a form of prayer. The paths are not mutually exclusive in Hinduism, but the relative emphasis between Karma yoga, Jnana yoga and Bhakti yoga varies by the individual.

Sampradaya, in Indian origin religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, can be translated as 'tradition', 'spiritual lineage', 'sect', or 'religious system'. To ensure continuity and transmission of dharma, various sampradayas have the Guru-shishya parampara in which parampara or lineage of successive gurus (masters) and shishyas (disciples) serves as a spiritual channel and provides a reliable network of relationships that lends stability to a religious identity. Shramana is vedic term for seeker or shishya. Identification with and followership of sampradayas is not static, as sampradayas allows flexibility where one can leave one sampradaya and enter another or practice religious syncretism by simultaneously following more than one sampradaya. Samparda is a Punjabi language term, used in Sikhism, for sampradayas.

<i>Sevā</i> Selfless service and volunteering in Indian religions

Sevā is the concept of selfless service that is performed without any expectation of reward for performing it. It is predominant in Hinduism and Sikhism. Such services can be performed to benefit other human beings or society. Sevā means "service". A more recent interpretation of the word is "dedication to others".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">God in Hinduism</span> Hindu conception of God

In Hinduism, the conception of God varies in its diverse religio-philosophical traditions. Hinduism comprises a wide range of beliefs about God and Divinity, such as henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, agnosticism, atheism, and nontheism.

Spiritual philosophy is any philosophy or teaching that pertains to spirituality. It may incorporate religious or esoteric themes. It can include any belief or thought system that embraces the existence of a reality that cannot be physically perceived. Concepts of spiritual philosophy are not universal and differ depending on one’s religious and cultural backgrounds. Spiritual philosophy can also be solely based on one’s personal and experiential connections.

Secular spirituality is the adherence to a spiritual philosophy without adherence to a religion. Secular spirituality emphasizes the inner peace of the individual, rather than a relationship with the divine. Secular spirituality is made up of the search for meaning outside of a religious institution; it considers one's relationship with the self, others, nature, and whatever else one considers to be the ultimate. Often, the goal of secular spirituality is living happily and/or helping others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hinduism in Mongolia</span> Ethnic group

Hinduism in Mongolia is a minority religion; it has few followers and only began to appear in Mongolia in the late twentieth century. According to the 2010 and 2011 Mongolian census, the majority of people that identify as religious follow Buddhism (86%), Shamanism (4.7), Islam (4.9%) or Christianity (3.5). Only 0.5% of the population follow other religions.

Para Brahman or Param Brahman in Hindu philosophy is the "Supreme Brahman" that which is beyond all descriptions and conceptualisations. It is described as beyond the form or the formlessness that eternally pervades everything, everywhere in the universe and whatever is beyond.

<i>Brahman</i> Metaphysical concept, unchanging Ultimate Reality in Hinduism

In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest universal principle, the Ultimate Reality of the universe. In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the non-physical, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. It is the pervasive, infinite, eternal truth, consciousness and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman as a metaphysical concept refers to the single binding unity behind diversity in all that exists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mysticism</span> Practice of religious experiences during alternate states of consciousness

Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in ultimate or hidden truths, and to human transformation supported by various practices and experiences.

Hindu denominations, sampradayas, traditions, movements, and sects are traditions and sub-traditions within Hinduism centered on one or more gods or goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and so on. The term sampradaya is used for branches with a particular founder-guru with a particular philosophy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neo-Vedanta</span> Interpretations of Hinduism that developed in the 19th century

Neo-Vedanta, also called Hindu modernism, neo-Hinduism, Global Hinduism and Hindu Universalism, are terms to characterize interpretations of Hinduism that developed in the 19th century. The term "Neo-Vedanta" was coined by German Indologist Paul Hacker, in a pejorative way, to distinguish modern developments from "traditional" Advaita Vedanta.

References

  1. 1 2 3 McCarroll, O'Connor & Meakes 2005, p. 44.
  2. 1 2 3 Koenig, King & Carson 2012, p. 36.
  3. 1 2 3 Cobb, Puchalski & Rumbold 2012, p. 213.
  4. 1 2 Waaijman 2000, p. 460.
  5. 1 2 Waaijman 2002, p. [ page needed ].
  6. 1 2 3 4 Wong & Vinsky 2009.
  7. ↑ "The medieval mind". The Psychologist. Archived from the original on 2021-10-23. Retrieved 2019-12-11.
  8. ↑ Safaria, Triantoro; Bashori, Khoiruddin (2022-10-27). "Relationship between Spirituality and Emotional Maturity with Cultural Intelligence in Preventing Culture Shock". Psympathic: Jurnal Ilmiah Psikologi. 9 (1): 45–54. doi: 10.15575/psy.v9i1.15628 . ISSN   2502-2903. Archived from the original on 2023-01-06. Retrieved 2023-01-06.
  9. 1 2 3 Gorsuch & Miller 1999.
  10. 1 2 3 Saucier & Skrzypinska 2006, p. 1259.
  11. 1 2 Sheldrake 2007, pp. 1–2.
  12. 1 2 Griffin 1988.
  13. 1 2 Schuurmans-Stekhoven 2014.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Houtman & Aupers 2007.
  15. 1 2 Snyder & Lopez 2007, p. 261.
  16. 1 2 Sharf 2000.
  17. 1 2 Waaijman 2002, p. 315.
  18. ↑ Bergomi, Mariapaola (2018). "Non-religious Spirituality in the Greek Age of Anxiety". In Salazar, Heather; Nicholls, Roderick (eds.). The Philosophy of Spirituality: Analytic, Continental and Multicultural Approaches to a New Field of Philosophy. Philosophy and Religion. Leiden: Brill. p. 143. ISBN   9789004376311 . Retrieved 2019-04-29. My aim is to show that [...] an enlightened form of non-religious spirituality did exist.
  19. ↑ Gradel, I. (2002). Emperor Worship and Roman Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  20. ↑ Barton, T. (1997). Power and Knowledge: Astrology, Physiognomics, and Medicine under the Roman Empire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  21. ↑ Hingley, R. (2005). Roman Religion and the Religious World of the Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  22. ↑ Jones, L.G., "A thirst for god or consumer spirituality? Cultivating disciplined practices of being engaged by god," in L. Gregory Jones and James J. Buckley eds., Spirituality and Social Embodiment, Oxford: Blackwell, 1997, 3–28 [4, n. 4].
  23. ↑ Waaijman 2000, pp. 359–360.
  24. 1 2 Waaijman 2000, p. 360.
  25. 1 2 Waaijman 2000, pp. 360–361.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 Waaijman 2000, p. 361.
  27. ↑ "Differences Between 17th Century And Early 18th Century | ipl.org". www.ipl.org. Archived from the original on 2022-11-05. Retrieved 2022-11-05.
  28. ↑ Pryce, Elaine (August 2010). ""Negative to a marked degree" or "an intense and glowing faith"? Rufus Jones and quaker quietism". Common Knowledge. 16 (3): 518–531. doi:10.1215/0961754X-2010-009. S2CID   144442025. Archived from the original on 20 November 2022. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
  29. ↑ Snyder & Lopez 2007, pp. 261–261.
  30. ↑ Barbera, Giuseppe, Pietas: An Introduction to Roman Traditionalism, Mythology Corner, 2 June 2021, ISBN 978-0981759616.
  31. ↑ Viotti, E.,La Via Romana agli Dèi: la storia, i miti, le fondamenta e i riti della religione romana oggi, Armenia, Milano, 2022, ISBN 9788834440438.
  32. ↑ Barbera, Giuseppe, *Esoteric Aspects of Roman Tradition*, Elio Ermete Publisher, 29 April 2017. Language: Italian, Paperback, 128 pages, ISBN 8826425434, ISBN 978-8826425436.
  33. ↑ Schmidt, Leigh Eric. Restless Souls: The Making of American Spirituality. San Francisco: Harper, 2005. ISBN   0-06-054566-6
  34. ↑ Remes 2014, p. 202.
  35. ↑ Versluis 2014, p. 35.
  36. 1 2 3 4 Sharf 1995.
  37. 1 2 3 4 McMahan 2008.
  38. ↑ McDermott, Robert (2007). The Essential Steiner. Lindisfarne. ISBN   978-1-58420-051-2.
  39. ↑ William James and Rudolf Steiner, Robert A. McDermott, 1991, in ReVision, vol. 13 no. 4 Archived 2015-09-23 at the Wayback Machine
  40. ↑ Ole Therkelsen: Martinus, Darwin and Intelligent design. A new Theory of Evolution, p. 7
  41. ↑ Roy 2003.
  42. ↑ King 2002, p. 93.
  43. ↑ "Video: Gurus, Women, and Yoga: The Spiritual World of Hindu Universalism". cswr.hds.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
  44. ↑ Yelle 2012, p. 338.
  45. ↑ King 2002, p. 135.
  46. 1 2 King 2002.
  47. ↑ Paul Heelas, The New Age Movement: The Celebration of the Self and the Sacralization of Modernity. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996, p. 60. Cited in Anthony Giddens: Sociology. Cambridge: Polity, 2001, p. 554.
  48. ↑ Michael Hogan (2010). The Culture of Our Thinking in Relation to Spirituality. Nova Science Publishers: New York.
  49. ↑ Hollywood, Amy (Winter–Spring 2010). "Spiritual but Not Religious: The Vital Interplay between Submission and Freedom". Harvard Divinity Bulletin. 38 (1 and 2). Harvard Divinity School. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
  50. ↑ David, Rabbi (2013-03-21). "Viewpoint: The Limitations of Being 'Spiritual but Not Religious'". TIME Ideas. Archived from the original on 2013-12-10. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
  51. ↑ Lam, Label (2023-06-16). "The Utmost Importance: Parshas Shlach". Torah.org. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
  52. 1 2 Green, Arthur. Jewish Spirituality. Vol. 1, 2.
  53. ↑ Sonsino 2002, p. [ page needed ].
  54. ↑ Biale, David; Assaf, David; Brown, Benjamin; Gellman, Uriel; Heilman, Samuel; Rosman, Moshe; Sagiv, Gadi; Wodziński, Marcin (2020-04-14). Hasidism: A New History. Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-20244-0.
  55. ↑ Garb, Jonathan (2020-07-23). A History of Kabbalah: From the Early Modern Period to the Present Day. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-1-108-88297-2.
  56. 1 2 Claussen, Geoffrey (2012). "The Practice of Musar". Conservative Judaism. 63 (2): 3–26. doi:10.1353/coj.2012.0002. S2CID   161479970. Archived from the original on 2021-10-24. Retrieved 2019-05-20.
  57. ↑ Dorff 2018, p. 49.
  58. ↑ Kaplan 2018, p. [ page needed ].
  59. ↑ Dorff 2018, pp. 49, 151.
  60. ↑ Kaplan 2013, p. 53.
  61. ↑ Dorff 2018, p. 69–70.
  62. ↑ Sonsino 2002, pp. 72–92.
  63. ↑ Dorff 2018, p. 91.
  64. ↑ Sonsino 2002, pp. 56–59.
  65. ↑ Kaplan 2013, p. 50.
  66. ↑ Sonsino 2002, pp. 112–129.
  67. ↑ Claussen, Geoffrey (January 2010). "The American Jewish Revival of Musar". The Hedgehog Review. Archived from the original on 2022-10-12. Retrieved 2021-11-23.
  68. 1 2 Pope Francis, Laudato si', published 24 May 2015, accessed 20 May 2024
  69. 1 2 Morgan 2010, p. 87.
  70. ↑ Jihad and the Islamic Law of War Archived August 18, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
  71. ↑ Rudolph Peters, Islam and Colonialism. The doctrine of Jihad in Modern History (Mouton Publishers, 1979), p. 118
  72. ↑ Fayd al-Qadir vol. 4, p. 511
  73. ↑ Azeemi, K.S., "Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation". Houston: Plato, 2005. ( ISBN   0-9758875-4-8), p. xi
  74. ↑ Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Sufism's Many Paths, 2000, University of Georgia Archived 2011-10-16 at the Wayback Machine
  75. ↑ Nuh Ha Mim Keller, "How would you respond to the claim that Sufism is Bid'a?", 1995. Fatwa accessible at: Masud.co.uk Archived 2008-12-31 at the Wayback Machine
  76. ↑ Zubair Fattani, "The meaning of Tasawwuf", Islamic Academy. Islamicacademy.org Archived 2008-08-28 at the Wayback Machine
  77. ↑ Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The first dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-24073-4. See Google book search Archived 2023-04-24 at the Wayback Machine .
  78. ↑ Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson – "The Principles of Sufism". Amal Press. 2008.
  79. ↑ An English translation of Ahmad ibn Ajiba's biography has been published by Fons Vitae.
  80. ↑ Matthieu Ricard has said this in a talk.
  81. ↑ "Rhys Davids & Stede (1921–25), p. 503, entry for "Bhāvanā," retrieved 9 December 2008 from University Chicago". Dsal.uchicago.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-07-11. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
  82. ↑ Monier-Williams (1899), p. 755, see "Bhāvana" and "Bhāvanā," retrieved 9 December 2008 from University of Cologne Archived 4 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine (PDF)
  83. ↑ Nyanatiloka 1980, p. 67.
  84. ↑ See:
    • Julius J. Lipner, Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN   978-0-415-45677-7, p. 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.";
    • Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, ISBN   978-0-12-369503-1, Academic Press, 2008;
    • MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism Archived 2015-07-24 at the Wayback Machine , Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see p. 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
  85. ↑ Jim Funderburk and Peter Scharf (2012) Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, क्षैत्रज्ञ Archived 2016-09-12 at the Wayback Machine ; Quote: "क्षैत्रज्ञ [ kṣaitrajña ] [ kṣaitrajña ] n. (fr. [ kṣetra-jñá ] g. [ yuvādi ], spirituality, nature of the soul Lit. W.; the knowledge of the soul Lit. W."
  86. ↑ See the following two in Ewert Cousins series on World Spirituality:
    • Bhavasar and Kiem, Spirituality and Health, in Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), ISBN   0-8245-0755-X, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp. 319–37;
    • John Arapura, Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in the Upanishads, in Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), ISBN   0-8245-0755-X, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp. 64–85
  87. 1 2 Gavin Flood, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, ISBN   978-90-04-17893-9, see Article on Wisdom and Knowledge, pp. 881–84
  88. ↑ John Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York, ISBN   0-8239-2287-1
  89. ↑ D. Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Cultural Psychology, in Anthony Marsella (Series Editor), International and Cultural Psychology, Springer New York, ISBN   978-1-4419-8109-7, pp. 93–140
  90. ↑ De Michelis, Elizabeth (2005). A History of Modern Yoga: Patanjali and Western Esotericism. Continuum. ISBN   978-0-8264-8772-8.[ page needed ]
  91. ↑ Feuerstein 2003, p. 3.
  92. ↑ Feuerstein 2003, "Chapter 55".
  93. ↑ Jean Varenne (1976), Yoga and the Hindu Tradition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN   0-226-85116-8, pp. 97–130
  94. ↑ See discussion of Hinduism and karma yoga in two different professions in these journal articles:
  95. ↑ Klaus Klostermaier (1989). "Spirituality and Nature". In Ewert Cousins (ed.). Hindu Spirituality. New York: Crossroads Publishing. pp. 319–337. ISBN   0-8245-0755-X.
  96. ↑ Vivekananda, S. (1980), Raja Yoga, Ramakrishna Vivekanada Center, ISBN   978-0-911206-23-4
  97. ↑ Richard King (1999), Indian philosophy: An introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN   0-7486-0954-7, pp. 69–71
  98. ↑ See:
    • Harung, Harald (2012). "Illustrations of Peak Experiences during Optimal Performance in World-class Performers Integrating Eastern and Western Insights". Journal of Human Values. 18 (1): 33–52. doi:10.1177/097168581101800104. S2CID   143106405.
    • Levin, Jeff (2010). "Religion and mental health: Theory and research". International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies. 7 (2): 102–15. doi:10.1002/aps.240.;
    • Meyer-Dinkgräfe, Daniel (2011). "Opera and spirituality". Performance and Spirituality. 2 (1): 38–59.
  99. ↑ See:
    • CR Prasad, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, ISBN   978-90-04-17893-9, see Article on Brahman, pp. 724–29
    • David Carpenter, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, ISBN   978-90-04-17893-9, see Article on Tapas, pp. 865–69
  100. ↑ Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, SUNY Press, ISBN   978-0-7914-7081-7, pp. 119–260
  101. ↑ Mikel Burley (2000), Hatha-Yoga: Its context, theory and practice, Motilal Banarsidass Publications, ISBN   81-208-1706-0, pp. 97–98; Quote: "When, for example, in the Bhagavad-Gita Lord Krsna speaks of jnana-, bhakti- and karma-yoga, he is not talking about three entirely separate ways of carrying out one's spiritual practice, but, rather, about three aspects of the ideal life".
  102. ↑ Murdana, I. Ketut (2008), Balinese Arts and Culture: A flash understanding of Concept and Behavior, Mudra – Jurnal Seni Budaya, Indonesia; Volume 22, p. 5
  103. ↑ Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN   0-521-43878-0
  104. ↑ Rochford, E.B. (1985), Hare Krishna in America, Rutgers University Press; ISBN   978-0-8135-1114-6, p. 12
  105. ↑ See:
    • Ramakrishna Puligandla (1985), Jñâna-Yoga – The Way of Knowledge (An Analytical Interpretation), University Press of America New York, ISBN   0-8191-4531-9;
    • Fort, A.O. (1998), Jīvanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta, State University of New York Press, ISBN   0-7914-3903-8;
    • Richard King (1999), Indian philosophy: An introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN   0-7486-0954-7, p. 223;
    • Sawai, Y. (1987), The Nature of Faith in the Śaṅkaran Vedānta Tradition, Numen, 34(1), pp. 18–44
  106. ↑ Nayar, Kamal Elizabeth & Sandhu, Jaswinder Singh (2007). The Socially Involved Renunciate – Guru Nanaks Discourse to Nath Yogi's. State University of New York Press. p. 106. ISBN   978-0-7914-7950-6.
  107. ↑ Kaur Singh; Nikky Guninder (2004). Hindu spirituality: Postclassical and modern. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 530. ISBN   978-81-208-1937-5.
  108. ↑ Marwha, Sonali Bhatt (2006). Colors of Truth, Religion Self and Emotions. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. p. 205. ISBN   978-81-8069-268-0.
  109. ↑ Marty E. Martin & R. Scott Appleby, eds. (1993). Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance . The Fundamentalism project. Vol. 3. University of Chicago Press. p.  278. ISBN   978-0-226-50884-9.
  110. ↑ Singh Gandhi, Surjit (2008). History of Sikh Gurus Retold: 1606–708. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. pp. 676–677. ISBN   978-81-269-0857-8.
  111. 1 2 Mandair, Arvind-Pal Singh (October 22, 2009). Religion and the Specter of the West – Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality and the Politics of Translation. University of Columbia. pp. 372–. ISBN   978-0-231-14724-8.
  112. ↑ Singh, Nirbhai (1990). Philosophy of Sikhism: Reality and Its Manifestations. New Delhi: South Asia Books. pp. 111–112.
  113. ↑ Singh Kalsi; Sewa Singh (2005). Sikhism. Chelsea House Publishers. p. 49. ISBN   978-0-7910-8098-6.
  114. ↑ Hayer, Tara (1988). "The Sikh Impact: Economic History of Sikhs in Canada" Volume 1. Surrey, Canada: Indo-Canadian Publishers. p. 14.[ verification needed ]
  115. ↑ Lebron, Robyn (2012). Searching for Spiritual Unity...can There be Common Ground?: A Basic Internet Guide to Forty World Religions & Spiritual Practices. CrossBooks. p. 399. ISBN   978-1-4627-1261-8.
  116. ↑ Singh, Nikky-Guninder (1993). The Feminine Principle in the Sikh Vision of the Transcendent. Cambridge University Press. p. 172. ISBN   978-0-521-43287-0.
  117. ↑ "The spirituality of Africa". Harvard Gazette. 2015-10-06. Archived from the original on 2019-06-19. Retrieved 2020-02-04.
  118. ↑ Mbiti, John S. (1990). African religions & philosophy (2nd rev. and enl. ed.). Oxford: Heinemann. ISBN   0435895915.
  119. ↑ Otterloo, Aupers & Houtman 2012, pp. 239–240.
  120. ↑ Hanegraaff 1996, p. 97.
  121. ↑ Lockwood, Renee D. (June 2012). "Pilgrimages to the Self: Exploring the Topography of Western Consumer Spirituality through 'the Journey'". Literature and Aesthetics. 22 (1): 108. Archived from the original on 12 October 2022. Retrieved 19 September 2019. The new Western spiritual landscape, characterised by consumerism and choice abundance, is scattered with novel religious manifestations based in psychology and the Human Potential Movement, each offering participants a pathway to the Self.
  122. ↑ Philip Sheldrake, A Brief History of Spirituality, Wiley-Blackwell 2007 pp. 1–2
  123. ↑ Ewert Cousins, preface to Antoine Faivre and Jacob Needleman, Modern Esoteric Spirituality, Crossroad Publishing 1992.
  124. 1 2 3 Dalai Lama, Ethics for the New Millennium, NY: Riverhead Books, 1999.
  125. 1 2 3 Schuurmans-Stekhoven 2011.
  126. ↑ Russell, Bertrand (1930). The Conquest of Happiness. Lulu.com (published 2018). ISBN   9781329522206 . Retrieved 19 September 2019. The man who can centre his thoughts and hopes upon something transcending self can find a certain peace in the ordinary troubles of life which is impossible to the pure egoist.[ permanent dead link ]
  127. ↑ Maisel, Eric (2009). The Atheist's Way: Living Well Without Gods. Novato, California: New World Library (published 2010). ISBN   9781577318422 . Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  128. ↑ Wilkinson, Tony (2007). The lost art of being happy: spirituality for sceptics. Findhorn Press. ISBN   978-1-84409-116-4.
  129. ↑ Browner, Matthieu Ricard; translated by Jesse (2003). Happiness: A guide to developing life's most important skill (1st pbk. ed.). New York: Little Brown. ISBN   978-0-316-16725-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  130. ↑ Ellison, Christopher G.; Daisy Fan (Sep 2008). "Daily Spiritual Experiences and Psychological Well-Being among US Adults". Social Indicators Research. 88 (2): 247–71. doi:10.1007/s11205-007-9187-2. JSTOR   27734699. S2CID   144712754.
  131. 1 2 Schuurmans-Stekhoven 2013.
  132. ↑ Anonymous (2009). Alcoholics Anonymous: By the Anonymous Press. The Anonymous Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN   978-1-892959-16-4 . Retrieved 5 March 2013.
  133. ↑ Compare: Ross, Colin A.; Pam, Alvin., eds. (1995). Pseudoscience in biological psychiatry: blaming the body. Wiley Series in General and Clinical Psychiatry. Vol. 10. Wiley & Sons. p. 96. ISBN   9780471007760 . Retrieved 19 September 2019. This doctrine [that alcoholism is a disease] has been adopted throughout the chemical dependency field including Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), despite the fact that it has no scientific foundation and is logically incorrect.
  134. 1 2 Hori 1999, p. 47.
  135. 1 2 3 Rambachan 1994.
  136. ↑ Sharf 2000, p. 271.
  137. ↑ Renard 2010, p. 191.
  138. ↑ Sinari 2000.
  139. ↑ Comans 1993.
  140. ↑ "A Search in Secret India".
  141. ↑ Margaret A. Burkhardt and Mary Gail Nagai-Jacobson, Spirituality: living our connectedness, Delmar Cengage Learning, p. xiii
  142. 1 2 Waaijman 2000, pp. 644–645.
  143. 1 2 3 Waaijman 2000, p. 645.
  144. ↑ Seybold, Kevin S.; Peter C. Hill (Feb 2001). "The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Mental and Physical Health". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 10 (1): 21–24. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00106. S2CID   144109851.
  145. ↑ Joshanloo, Mohsen (4 December 2010). "Investigation of the Contribution of Spirituality and Religiousness to Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-Being in Iranian Young Adults". Journal of Happiness Studies. 12 (6): 915–30. doi:10.1007/s10902-010-9236-4. S2CID   143848163.
  146. ↑ Fehring, R.J., Miller, J.F., Shaw, C. (1997). Spiritual well-being, religiosity, hope, depression, and other mood states in elderly people coping with cancer 24. Oncology Nursing Forum. pp. 663–71.
  147. ↑ Nelson, C.J.; Rosenfeld, B.; Breitbart, W.; Galietta, M. (2002). "Spirituality, religion, and depression in the terminally ill". Psychosomatics. 43 (3): 213–20. doi: 10.1176/appi.psy.43.3.213 . PMID   12075036.
  148. ↑ Koenig 2008.
  149. ↑ Schuurmans-Stekhoven 2019.
  150. ↑ Salsman, J.M.; Brown, T.L.; Brechting, E.H.; Carlson, C.R. (2005). "The link between religion and spirituality and psychological adjustment: The mediating role of optimism and social support". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 31 (4): 522–35. doi:10.1177/0146167204271563. PMID   15743986. S2CID   34780785.
  151. ↑ Park, C (2005). "Religion as a meaning-making framework in coping with life stress". Journal of Social Issues. 61 (4): 707–29. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00428.x.
  152. ↑ Hill, P.C. (1995). Affect theory and religious experience. In R.W. Hood, Jr (Ed.) Handbook of religious experience (pp.) Birmingham AL, Religious Education Press.
  153. 1 2 Schuurmans-Stekhoven 2013a.
  154. ↑ Emmons, R.A. (2005). Emotion and religion. In R.F. Paloutzian, & C.L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 235–52). New York: Guilford Press.
  155. ↑ Saroglou, V.; Buxant, C.; Tilquin, J. (2008). "Positive emotions as leading to religion and spirituality". Journal of Positive Psychology. 3 (3): 165–73. doi:10.1080/17439760801998737. S2CID   145374566.
  156. ↑ Schuurmans-Stekhoven 2010.
  157. ↑ Saroglou, V (2010). "Religiousness as a cultural adaptation of basic traits: A five-factor model perspective". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 14 (1): 108–25. doi:10.1177/1088868309352322. PMID   20023209. S2CID   206682563.
  158. ↑ Saroglou, V (2002). "Religion and the five factors of personality: A meta-analytic review". Personality and Individual Differences. 32 (1): 15–25. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00233-6.
  159. ↑ "independent review". Archived from the original on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2014-07-14.
  160. ↑ Schuurmans-Stekhoven 2017.
  161. ↑ Gebauer, J.; Bleidorn, W.; Gosling, S.; Rentfrow, P.; Lamb, M.; Potter, J. (2014). "Cross-cultural variations in Big Five relationships with religiosity: A sociocultural motives perspective". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 107 (6): 1064–91. doi:10.1037/a0037683. PMID   25180757. Archived from the original on 2020-07-14. Retrieved 2019-12-09.
  162. ↑ Löckenhoff, C.E.; Ironson, G.H.; O'Cleirigh, C.; Costa, P.T. (2009). "Five-Factor Model Personality Traits, Spirituality/Religiousness, and Mental Health Among People Living With HIV". Journal of Personality. 77 (5): 1411–1436. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00587.x. PMC   2739880 . PMID   19686457.
  163. ↑ Masters, K.S.; Spielmans, G.I (2007). "Prayer and health: review, meta-analysis, and research agenda". Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 30 (4): 329–38. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.462.3003 . doi:10.1007/s10865-007-9106-7. PMID   17487575. S2CID   3621477.
  164. ↑ Benson; et al. (2006). "Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass patients: A multicenter randomized trial of uncertainty and certainty of receiving intercessory prayer". American Heart Journal. 151 (4): 934–42. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2005.05.028. PMID   16569567.
  165. ↑ Koenig, King & Carson 2012.
  166. ↑ Puchalski et al. 2014.
  167. ↑ Alper, Matthew, The "God" Part of the Brain: A Scientific Interpretation of Human Spirituality and God Sourcebooks, Inc., 2008 ISBN   1-4022-1452-9 , 978-1-4022-1452-3
  168. ↑ Talan, Jamie Science Probes Spirituality February/March 2006: Scientific American Mind. Archived 2010-12-31 at the Wayback Machine
  169. ↑ Kurup, R.K.; Kurup, P.A. (2003). "Hypothalamic digoxin, hemispheric chemical digoxin, and spirituality". International Journal of Neuroscience. 113 (3): 383–93. doi:10.1080/00207450390162155. PMID   12803140. S2CID   23851931.
  170. ↑ Necini, P., & Grant, K.A. (2010). Psychobiology of drug-induced religious experience: From the brain 'locus of religion' to cognitive unbinding. Substance Use & Misuse, 45(13), 2130–51.
  171. ↑ Joseph, R. (2001). The limbic system and the soul: Evolution and the neuroanatomy of religious experience, Zygon, 36(1), 105–36.
  172. ↑ D'Aquili, E.G., & Newberg, A.B. (1998) The neuropsychological basis of religions, or Why God won't go away. Zygon, 33(2), 187–201
  173. ↑ Griffiths, R.R., Richards, W.A., McCann, U., Jesse, R. (2006). Psilocybin can occasion mystical type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance Psychopharmacology, 187:268–83
  174. ↑ Drevets, W.C.; Gautier, C.; Price, J.C.; Kupfer, D.J.; Kinahan, P.E.; Grace, A.A.; Price, J.L.; Mathis, C.A. (2001). "Amphetamine-induced dopamine release in human ventral striatum correlates with euphoria". Biological Psychiatry. 49 (2): 81–96. doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(00)01038-6. PMID   11164755. S2CID   16090732.
  175. ↑ Crescentini, Cristiano; Di Bucchianico, Marilena; Fabbro, Franco; Urgesi, Cosimo (2015). "Excitatory stimulation of the right inferior parietal cortex lessens implicit religiousness/Spirituality". Neuropsychologia. 70: 71–79. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.016. PMID   25697502. S2CID   20251662.
  176. ↑ Claridge, G. (2010) Spiritual experience: Healthy psychoticism? In Clarke, I. (Ed), Psychosis and spirituality: Consolidating the new paradigm (pp. 75–86). Chester: Wiley-Blackwell.
  177. 1 2 Cottam, S.; Paul, S. N.; Doughty, O. J.; Carpenter, L.; Al-Mousawi, A.; Karvounis, S.; Done, D. J. (2011). "Does religious belief enable positive interpretation of auditory hallucinations? A comparison of religious voice hearers with and without psychosis". Cognitive Neuropsychiatry. 16 (5): 403–421. doi:10.1080/13546805.2010.548543. PMID   21390926. S2CID   21362892.
  178. 1 2 Davies, M.F.; Griffin, M.; Vice, S. (2001). "Affective reactions to auditory hallucinations in psychotic, evangelical and control groups" (PDF). British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 40 (4): 361–70. doi:10.1348/014466501163850. PMID   11760613. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-12-18. Retrieved 2018-12-17.
  179. ↑ Thalbourne, M.A.; Delin, P.S. (1994). "A common thread underlying belief in the paranormal, creative personality, mystical experience and psychopathology". Journal of Parapsychology. 58: 3–38.
  180. 1 2 MacDonald, Douglas A.; Friedman, Harris L.; Brewczynski, Jacek; Holland, Daniel; Salagame, Kiran Kumar K.; Mohan, K. Krishna; Gubrij, Zuzana Ondriasova; Cheong, Hye Wook; Sueur, Cédric (3 March 2015). "Spirituality as a Scientific Construct: Testing Its Universality across Cultures and Languages". PLOS ONE. 10 (3): e0117701. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1017701M. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117701 . PMC   4348483 . PMID   25734921.
  181. ↑ Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J.B. (2014). "Measuring Spirituality as Personal Belief in Supernatural Forces: Is the Character Strength Inventory-Spirituality subscale a brief, reliable and valid measure?". Implicit Religion. 17 (2): 211–222. doi:10.1558/imre.v17i2.211.

Sources

Published sources

  • Cobb, Mark R.; Puchalski, Christina M.; Rumbold, Bruce (2012). Oxford Textbook of Spirituality in Healthcare.
  • Comans, Michael (January 1993). "The Question of the Importance of Samadhi in Modern and Classical Advaita Vedanta". Philosophy East and West. 43 (1): 19–38. doi:10.2307/1399467. JSTOR   1399467. Archived from the original on 2017-06-03. Retrieved 2019-01-03.
  • Dorff, Elliot N. (2018). Modern Conservative Judaism: Evolving Thought and Practice. University of Nebraska Press.
  • Feuerstein, Georg (2003). The deeper dimension of yoga: Theory and practice. London: Shambhala. ISBN   1-57062-935-8.
  • Gorsuch, R.L.; Miller, W.R. (1999). "Assessing spirituality". In W.R. Miller (ed.). Integrating spirituality into treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. pp. 47–64.
  • Griffin, David Ray (1988). Spirituality and Society. SUNY.
  • Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1996). New Age Religion and Western Culture. Esotericism in the mirror of Secular Thought. Leiden/New York/Koln: Brill.
  • Hori, Victor Sogen (1999). "Translating the Zen Phrase Book" (PDF). Nanzan Bulletin. 23. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-01-16. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  • Houtman, Dick; Aupers, Stef (2007). "The Spiritual Turn and the Decline of Tradition: The Spread of Post-Christian Spirituality in 14 Western Countries, 1981–2000". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 46 (3): 305–320. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-5906.2007.00360.x .
  • Kaplan, Dana Evan (2013). Contemporary Debates in American Reform Judaism: Conflicting Visions.
  • Kaplan, Dana Evan (2018). A Life of Meaning: Embracing Reform Judaism's Sacred Path.
  • King, Richard (2002). Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East". Routledge.
  • Koenig, H.G. (2008). "Research on religion, spirituality, and mental health: A review". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry.[ full citation needed ]
  • Koenig, Harold; King, Dana; Carson, Verna B. (2012). Handbook of Religion and Health. Oxford University Press.
  • McCarroll, Pam; O'Connor, Thomas St. James; Meakes, Elizabeth (2005). "Assessing plurality in Spirituality Definitions". In Meier; et al. (eds.). Spirituality and Health: Multidisciplinary Explorations. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. pp. 44–59.
  • McMahan, David L. (2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-518327-6.
  • Morgan, Diane (2010). Essential Islam: a comprehensive guide to belief and practice. ABC-CLIO. ISBN   978-0-313-36025-1.
  • Nyanatiloka, Mahathera (1980). Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Terms And Doctrines (4th ed.). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.
  • Otterloo, Anneke; Aupers, Stef; Houtman, Dick (2012). "Trajectories to the New Age. The spiritual turn of the first generation of Dutch New Age teachers" (PDF). Social Compass. 59 (2): 239–56. doi:10.1177/0037768612440965. hdl: 1765/21876 . S2CID   145189097. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-09. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
  • Puchalski, Christina; Vitillo, Robert; Hull, Sharon; Relle, Nancy (2014). "Spiritual Dimensions of Whole Person Care: Reaching National and International Consensus". Journal of Palliative Medicine. 17 (6): 642–656. doi:10.1089/jpm.2014.9427. PMC   4038982 . PMID   24842136.
  • Rambachan, Anatanand (1994). The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas. University of Hawaii Press.
  • Remes, Pauliina (2014). Neoplatonism. Routledge.
  • Renard, Philip (2010). Non-Dualisme. De directe bevrijdingsweg. Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip.
  • Roy, Sumita (2003). Aldous Huxley And Indian Thought. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
  • Saucier, Gerard; Skrzypinska, Katarzyna (1 October 2006). "Spiritual But Not Religious? Evidence for Two Independent Dispositions" (PDF). Journal of Personality. 74 (5): 1257–92. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.548.7658 . doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00409.x. JSTOR   27734699. PMID   16958702. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-08. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
  • Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J.B. (2010). "'Moved by the spirit': does spirituality moderate the inter-relationships between subjective well-being subscales?". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 66 (7): 709–725. doi:10.1002/jclp.20694. PMID   20527052.
  • Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J.B. (2011). "Is it God or just the data that moves in mysterious ways? How well-being research might be mistaking faith for virtue?". Social Indicators Research. 100 (2): 313–330. doi:10.1007/s11205-010-9630-7. S2CID   144755003.
  • Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J.B. (2013). "As a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats": Does the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale encapsulate separable theistic and civility components?". Social Indicators Research. 110 (1): 131–146. doi:10.1007/s11205-011-9920-8. S2CID   144658300.
  • Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J.B. (2013a). "Is God's call more than audible? A preliminary exploration of a two-dimensional model of theistic/spiritual beliefs and experiences". Australian Journal of Psychology. 65 (3): 146–155. doi:10.1111/ajpy.12015. S2CID   143149239.
  • Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J.B. (2014). "Measuring Spirituality as Personal Belief in Supernatural Forces: Is the Character Strength Inventory-Spirituality subscale a brief, reliable and valid measure?". Implicit Religion. 17 (2): 211–222. doi:10.1558/imre.v17i2.211.
  • Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J.B. (2017). "Spirit or Fleeting Apparition? Why Spirituality's Link with Social Support Might be Incrementally Invalid". Journal of Religion and Health. 56 (4): 1248–1262. doi:10.1007/s10943-013-9801-3. PMID   24297674. S2CID   4913532.
  • Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J.B. (2019). "Conviction, character and coping: religiosity and personality are both uniquely associated with optimism and positive reappraising". Mental Health, Religion & Culture: 1–17.
  • Sharf, Robert H. (1995). "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience" (PDF). NUMEN. 42 (3): 228–283. doi:10.1163/1568527952598549. hdl: 2027.42/43810 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-04-12. Retrieved 2013-02-10.
  • Sharf, Robert H. (2000). "The Rhetoric of Experience and the Study of Religion" (PDF). Journal of Consciousness Studies. 7 (11–12): 267–287. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-13. Retrieved 2013-01-13.
  • Sheldrake, Philip (2007). A Brief History of Spirituality. Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Sinari, Ramakant (2000). "Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy". In Chattopadhyana (ed.). History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Vol. II. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
  • Snyder, C.R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2007). Positive Psychology. Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN   978-0-7619-2633-7.
  • Sonsino, Rifat (2002). Six Jewish Spiritual Paths: A Rationalist Looks at Spirituality.
  • Versluis, Arthur (2014). American Gurus: From Transcendentalism to New Age Religion. Oxford University Press.
  • Waaijman, Kees (2000). Spiritualiteit. Vormen, grondslagen, methoden. Kampen/Gent: Kok/Carmelitana.
  • Waaijman, Kees (2002). Spirituality: Forms, Foundations, Methods. Peeters Publishers.
  • Wong, Yuk-Lin Renita; Vinsky, Jana (2009). "Speaking from the Margins: A Critical Reflection on the 'Spiritual-but-not-Religious' Discourse in Social Work". British Journal of Social Work. 39 (7): 1343–1359. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcn032.
  • Yelle, Robert A. (December 2012). "Comparative Religion as Cultural Combat: Occidentalism and Relativism in Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different". International Journal of Hindu Studies. 16 (3): 335–348. doi:10.1007/s11407-012-9133-z. S2CID   144950049.

Web-sources

  1. 1 2 "Online Etymology Dictionary, Spirit". Etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 2013-10-21. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
  2. ↑ "Online Etymology Dictionary, Spiritual". Etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 2013-10-28. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
  3. ↑ "Online Etymology Dictionary, Spirituality". Etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
  4. ↑ "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Transcendentalism". Plato.stanford.edu. Archived from the original on 2010-07-11. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Jone Johnson Lewis. "What is Transcendentalism?". Transcendentalists.com. Archived from the original on 2014-06-27. Retrieved 2014-01-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  6. ↑ "Barry Andrews, The Roots Of Unitarian Universalist Spirituality In New England Transcendentalism ". Archive.uua.org. 1999-03-12. Archived from the original on 2013-09-21. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
  7. ↑ "What Are Jewish Spiritual Practices?". Institute for Jewish Spirituality. Archived from the original on 2021-06-22. Retrieved 2021-11-25.
  8. 1 2 3 "Jihad". Religions. BBC. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
  9. ↑ "NewsweekBeliefnet Poll Results". Archived from the original on 2018-01-04. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
  10. ↑ Gellman, Jerome. "Mysticism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 ed.). Retrieved 2014-01-04. Under the influence of William James' The Varieties of Religious Experience, philosophical interest in mysticism has been heavy in distinctive, allegedly knowledge-granting 'mystical experiences.'
  11. ↑ "Robert H. Sharf, Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-02-02. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
  12. ↑ "Hu Shih: Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism in China. Its History and Method". Thezensite.com. Archived from the original on 2020-02-17. Retrieved 2014-01-04.
  13. ↑ Tom Rees (June 5, 2013). "Does hallucinations + happiness = spirituality?". Epiphenom. Archived from the original on June 13, 2015. Retrieved June 12, 2015.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.