Religion and health

Last updated

Scholarly studies have investigated the effects of religion on health. The World Health Organization (WHO) discerns four dimensions of health, namely physical, social, mental, and spiritual health. [1] [2] Having a religious belief may have both positive and negative impacts on health and morbidity.

Contents

Religion and spirituality

Spirituality has been ascribed many different definitions in different contexts, but a general definition is: an individual's search for meaning and purpose in life. Spirituality is distinct from organized religion in that spirituality does not necessarily need a religious framework. That is, one does not necessarily need to follow certain rules, guidelines or practices to be spiritual, but an organized religion often has some combination of these in place. Some people who suffer from severe mental disorders may find comfort in religion. [3] People who report themselves to be spiritual people may not observe any specific religious practices or traditions. [4] Its important to identify what is spirituality in a expanded format to determine what is the best way to research and study it.

Scientific research

More than 3000 empirical studies have examined relationships between religion and health, including more than 1200 in the 20th century, [5] and more than 2000 additional studies between 2000 and 2009. [6] Various other reviews of the religion/spirituality and health literature have been published. These include two reviews [7] [8] from an NIH-organized expert panel that appeared in a 4-article special section of American Psychologist . [9] Several chapters in edited academic books have also reviewed the empirical literature. [10] The literature has also been reviewed extensively from the perspective of public health and its various subfields ranging from health policy and management to infectious diseases and vaccinology. [11] More than 30 meta-analyses and 100 systematic reviews have been published on relations between religious or spiritual factors and health outcomes. [12]

Dimensions of health

The World Health Organization (WHO) discerns four dimensions of health, namely physical, social, mental, and spiritual health. [13]

Physical health

Positive effects

According to Ellison & Levin (1998), some studies indicate that religiosity appears to positively correlate with physical health. [14] For instance, mortality rates are lower among people who frequently attend religious events and consider themselves both religious and spiritual. [15] [16] According to Seybold & Hill (2001), almost all studies involved in the effect of religion on a person's physical health have revealed it has a positive attribution to their lifestyle. These studies have been carried out among all ages, genders and religions. These are based on the experience of religion is positive in itself. [17]

One possibility is that religion provides physical health benefits indirectly. Church attendees present with lower rates of alcohol consumption and improvement in mood, which is associated with better physical health. [18] Kenneth Pargament is a major contributor to the theory of how individuals may use religion as a resource in coping with stress, His work seems to show the influence of attribution theory. Additional evidence suggests that this relationship between religion and physical health may be causal. [19] Religion may reduce likelihood of certain diseases. Studies suggest that it guards against cardiovascular disease by reducing blood pressure, and also improves immune system functioning. [20] Similar studies have been done investigating religious emotions and health. Although religious emotions, such as humility, forgiveness, and gratitude confer health benefits, it is unclear if religious people cultivate and experience those emotions more frequently than non-religious peoples. [21]

Church attendance

In many studies, attendance at religious services has been found to be associated with lower levels of multiple risk factors for ill health and mortality and with lower prevalence and incidence of illness and mortality. For example, a recent report of a follow-up study of over five thousand Americans found those attending more than weekly had half the mortality of those never attending after adjusting for multiple variables. [22] This can be expressed as an increase life expectancy (Hummer et al. 1999) with a life expectancy at age 20 of 83 years for frequent attendees and 75 years for non-attendees. A causal association between a risk factor and an outcome can only be proven by a randomized controlled experiment, obviously infeasible in this case. Hence, observational findings of an association of religious attendance with lower mortality are compatible with a causal relationship but cannot prove one. Church goers may differ from others in ways not measured that could explain their better health.

One alternative explanation is that social activities performed in church, such as group singing, have health benefits for which a religious component is not necessary. [23]

Life expectancy and death rates

Loma Linda, California, one of the five original Blue Zones of the world, "live eight to 10 years longer than the average American". [24] Its population largely holds church membership in the Seventh-day Adventist Church, which encourages Christian vegetarianism and mandates the observance of the Sabbath. [24]

Kark et. (1996) included almost 4,000 Israelis, over 16 years (beginning in 1970), death rates were compared between the experimental group (people belonging to 11 religious kibbutzim) versus the control group (people belonging to secular kibbutzim). Some determining factors for the groups included the date the kibbutz was created, geography of the different groups, and the similarity in age. It was determined that "belonging to a religious collective was associated with a strong protective effect". [25] Not only do religious people tend to exhibit healthier lifestyles, they also may have a strong support system that individualist secular people would not normally have. A religious community can provide support especially through a stressful life event such as the death of a loved one or illness. There is the belief that a higher power will provide healing and strength through the rough times which also can explain the lower mortality rate of religious people vs. secular people.

The existence of 'religious struggle' in elderly patients was predictive of greater risk of mortality in a study by Pargament et al. (2001). Results indicate that patients, with a previously sound religious life, experienced a 19% to 28% greater mortality due to the belief that God was supposedly punishing them or abandoning them.

Infections

A number of religious practices have been reported to cause infections. These happened during an ultra-orthodox Jewish circumcisions practice known as metzitzah b'peh, the ritual 'side roll' in Hinduism, [note 1] the Christian communion chalice, during the Islamic Hajj and after the Muslim ritual ablution (where nasal irrigation is concerned). [26] [27]

Prayer

Some religions claim that praying for somebody who is sick can have positive effects on the health of the person being prayed for. Meta-studies of the literature in the field have been performed showing evidence only for no effect or a potentially small effect. For instance, a 2006 meta analysis on 14 studies concluded that there is "no discernible effect" while a 2007 systemic review of intercessory prayer reported inconclusive results, noting that 7 of 17 studies had "small, but significant, effect sizes" but the review noted that the most methodologically rigorous studies failed to produce significant findings. [28] [29]

Randomized controlled trials of intercessory prayer have not yielded significant effects on health. These trials have compared personal, focused, committed and organized intercessory prayer with those interceding holding some belief that they are praying to God or a god versus any other intervention. A Cochrane collaboration review of these trials concluded that 1) results were equivocal, 2) evidence does not support a recommendation either in favor or against the use of intercessory prayer and 3) any resources available for future trials should be used to investigate other questions in health research. [30] In a case-control study done following 5,286 Californians over a 28-year period in which variables were controlled for (i.e. age, race/ethnicity, gender, education level), participants who went to church on a frequent basis (defined as attending a religious service once a week or more) were 36% less likely to die during that period. [31] However, this can be partly be attributed to a better lifestyle since religious people tend to drink and smoke less and eat a healthier diet.

Mental health

According to a meta-analytical review, a large volume of research shows that people who are more religious and spiritual have better mental health and adapt more quickly to health problems compared to those who are less religious and spiritual. [32]

Studies have shown that religious believers experience higher levels of "mattering to others, dignity and meaning in their lives". [33] [34] In those who prayed often, the association was stronger. [33] [34]

Religiosity has been found to mitigate the negative impact of income inequality and injustice on life satisfaction. [35] [36]

The link between religion and mental health may be due to the guiding framework or social support that it offers to individuals. [37] By these routes, religion has the potential to offer security and significance in life, as well as valuable human relationships, to foster mental health. Some theorists have suggested that the benefits of religion and religiosity are accounted for by the social support afforded by membership in a religious group. [38]

Religion may also provide coping skills to deal with stressors, or demands perceived as straining. [39] Pargament's three primary styles of religious coping are 1) self-directing, characterized by self-reliance and acknowledgement of God, 2) deferring, in which a person passively attributes responsibility to God, and 3) collaborative, which involves an active partnership between the individual and God and is most commonly associated with positive adjustment. [40] [41] This model of religious coping has been criticized for its over-simplicity and failure to take into account other factors, such as level of religiosity, specific religion, and type of stressor. [42] Additional work by Pargament involves a detailed delineation of positive and negative forms of religious coping, captured in the BRIEF-RCOPE questionnaire which have been linked to a range of positive and negative psychological outcomes. [43] [44]

Religiosity is positively associated with mental disorders that involve an excessive amount of self-control and negatively associated with mental disorders that involve a lack of self-control. [45] Other studies have found indications of mental health among both the religious and the secular. For instance, Vilchinsky & Kravetz found negative correlations with psychological distress among religious and secular subgroups of Jewish students. [46] In addition, intrinsic religiosity has been inversely related to depression in the elderly, while extrinsic religiosity has no relation or even a slight positive relation to depression. [47] [48]

Depression

In one study, those who were assessed to have a higher spiritual quality of life on a spiritual well-being scale had less depressive symptoms. [49] Cancer and AIDS patients who were more spiritual had lower depressive symptoms than religious patients. Spirituality shows beneficial effects possibly because it speaks to one's ability to intrinsically find meaning in life, strength, and inner peace, which is especially important for very ill patients. [4]

Exline et al. 1999 showed that the difficulty in forgiving God and alienation from God were associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety. Among those who currently believed in God, forgiving God for a specific, unfortunate incident predicted lower levels of anxious and depressed mood. [50]

Schizophrenia and psychosis

Studies have reported beneficial effects of spirituality on the lives of patients with schizophrenia, major depression, and other psychotic disorders. [51] Schizophrenic patients were less likely to be re-hospitalized if families encouraged religious practice, and in depressed patients who underwent religiously based interventions, their symptoms improved faster than those who underwent secular interventions. Furthermore, a few cross-sectional studies have shown that more religiously involved people had less instance of psychosis. [52]

Life satisfaction

Research shows that religiosity moderates the relationship between "thinking about meaning of life" and life satisfaction. [53] For individuals scoring low and moderately on religiosity, thinking about the meaning of life is negatively correlated with life satisfaction. For people scoring highly on religiosity, however, this relationship is positive. [39] Religiosity has also been found to moderate the relationship between negative affect and life satisfaction, such that life satisfaction is less strongly influenced by the frequency of negative emotions in more religious (vs less religious) individuals. [54]

Coping with trauma

One of the most common ways that people cope with trauma is through the comfort found in religious or spiritual practices. [55] Psychologists of religion have performed multiple studies to measure the positive and negative effects of this coping style. [56] Leading researchers have split religious coping into two categories: positive religious coping and negative religious coping. Individuals who use positive religious coping are likely to seek spiritual support and look for meaning in a traumatic situation. Negative religious coping (or spiritual struggles) expresses conflict, question, and doubt regarding issues of God and faith. [57]

The effects of religious coping are measured in many different circumstances, each with different outcomes. Some common experiences where people use religious coping are fear-inflicting events such as 9/11 or the holocaust, death and sickness, and near death experiences. Research also shows that people also use religious coping to deal with everyday stressors in addition to life-changing traumas. [58] The underlying assumption of the ability of religion to influence the coping process lies in the hypothesis that religion is more than a defence mechanism as it was viewed by Sigmund Freud. Rather than inspiring denial, religion stimulates reinterpretations of negative events through the sacred lens. [59]

Moral mandate

Social health

Spiritual health

Spiritual health is one of four dimensions of well-being as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), along with physical, social, and mental health. [60]

The preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO) adopted by the International Health Conference held in New York from 19 June to 22 July 1946 and signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States [61] defined health as a state of "physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity" [62] and it has not been amended.

However, in 1983, twenty-two WHO member countries from the Eastern Mediterranean Region proposed a draft resolution to this preamble to include reference to spiritual health, such that it would redefine health as a state of "physical, mental, spiritual and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". [63]

While the WHO did not amend the preamble to its constitution, resolution WHA31.13 passed by the Thirty-seventh World Health Assembly, in 1984 [64] called upon Member States to consider including in their Health For All strategies a spiritual dimension as defined in that resolution in accordance with their own social and cultural patterns, [65] recognizing that "the spiritual dimension plays a great role in motivating people's achievements in all aspects of life". [66]

The complete description of the spiritual dimension as articulated by the Health Assembly is as follows:

The spiritual dimension is understood to imply a phenomenon that is not material in nature, but belongs to the realm of ideas, beliefs, values and ethics that have arisen in the minds and conscience of human beings, particularly ennobling ideas. Ennobling ideas have given rise to health ideals, which have led to a practical strategy for Health for All that aims at attaining a goal that has both a material and non-material component. If the material component of the strategy can be provided to people, the non-material or spiritual one is something that has to arise within people and communities in keeping with their social and cultural patterns. The spiritual dimension plays a great role in motivating people's achievement in all aspects of life. [67]

Since the inclusion of spiritual health within WHO's purview, a number of other significant organizations have also attended to spirituality and incorporated reference to it in key documents, including the United Nations action plan Agenda 21 [68] which recognizes the right of individuals to "healthy physical, mental, and spiritual development". [69]

See also

General

Topical (health)

Topical (religion)

Books

Journals

Notes

  1. ↑ The 'side roll' is a ritual performed during a Hindu festival in which large numbers of male devotees lie prostrate on the ground and roll sideways around the temple premises in fulfilment of vows taken at the temple. Because the men's upper bodies are usually bare during this ritual, their skin comes into contact with the parasitic larvae that infest the soil or sand on the ground, resulting in the Cutaneous larva migrans (CLM) skin disease.

Related Research Articles

The meaning of spirituality has developed and expanded over time, and various meanings can be found alongside each other. Traditionally, spirituality referred to a religious process of re-formation which "aims to recover the original shape of man", oriented at "the image of God" as exemplified by the founders and sacred texts of the religions of the world. The term was used within early Christianity to refer to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit and broadened during the Late Middle Ages to include mental aspects of life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religiosity</span> Degree of religious commitment or involvement

The Oxford English Dictionary defines religiosity as: "Religiousness; religious feeling or belief. [...] Affected or excessive religiousness". Different scholars have seen this concept as broadly about religious orientations and degrees of involvement or commitment. The contrast between "religious" and "religiose" and the concept of "strengthening" faith suggest differences in the intensity of religiosity.

Psychology of religion consists of the application of psychological methods and interpretive frameworks to the diverse contents of religious traditions as well as to both religious and irreligious individuals. The various methods and frameworks can be summarized according to the classic distinction between the natural-scientific and human-scientific approaches. The first cluster amounts to objective, quantitative, and preferably experimental procedures for testing hypotheses about causal connections among the objects of one's study. In contrast, the human-scientific approach accesses the human world of experience using qualitative, phenomenological, and interpretive methods. This approach aims to discern meaningful, rather than causal, connections among the phenomena one seeks to understand.

The study of religiosity and intelligence explores the link between religiosity and intelligence or educational level. Religiosity and intelligence are both complex topics that include diverse variables, and the interactions among those variables are not always well understood. For instance, intelligence is often defined differently by different researchers; also, all scores from intelligence tests are only estimates of intelligence, because one cannot achieve concrete measurements of intelligence due to the concept’s abstract nature. Religiosity is also complex, in that it involves wide variations of interactions of religious beliefs, practices, behaviors, and affiliations, across a diverse array of cultures.

Kenneth I. Pargament is an emeritus professor of psychology at Bowling Green State University.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Efficacy of prayer</span>

The efficacy of prayer has been studied since at least 1872, generally through experiments to determine whether prayer or intercessory prayer has a measurable effect on the health of the person for whom prayer is offered. A study in 2006 indicates that intercessory prayer in cardiac bypass patients had no discernible effects.

Spiritual crisis is a form of identity crisis where an individual experiences drastic changes to their meaning system typically because of a spontaneous spiritual experience. A spiritual crisis may cause significant disruption in psychological, social, and occupational functioning. Among the spiritual experiences thought to lead to episodes of spiritual crisis or spiritual emergency are psychiatric complications related to existential crisis, mystical experience, near-death experiences, Kundalini syndrome, paranormal experiences, religious ecstasy, or other spiritual practices.

Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that taken together constitute psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the list of psychology topics and list of psychology disciplines.

<i>Handbook of Religion and Health</i> 2001 book

Handbook of Religion and Health is a scholarly book about the relation of spirituality and religion with physical and mental health. Written by Harold G. Koenig, Michael E. McCullough, and David B. Larson, the first edition was published in the United States in 2001. Subsequent editions in 2012 and 2023 provide entirely new content as each edition reviews researched published since the previous edition. The book has been discussed in magazines and reviewed in professional journals.

<i>Multidimensional Measurement of Religiousness/Spirituality for Use in Health Research</i>

Multidimensional Measurement of Religiousness/Spirituality for Use in Health Research is a report, originally published in 1999, by a Fetzer Institute / National Institute on Aging working group on the measurement of religion and spirituality. A revised version with a new preface was published in 2003. The book presents a series of 12 self-report questionnaire measures, each focused on a particular aspect of religiousness or spirituality, along with reviews of underlying theory and supporting research. The book's purpose is to provide validated measures of spiritual and religious factors in health research. The book includes the Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality (BMMRS), a practical measure with selected items from the 12 previous chapters.

"Spiritual but not religious" (SBNR), also known as "spiritual but not affiliated" (SBNA), or less commonly "more spiritual than religious" is a popular phrase and initialism used to self-identify a life stance of spirituality that does not regard organized religion as the sole or most valuable means of furthering spiritual growth. Historically, the words religious and spiritual have been used synonymously to describe all the various aspects of the concept of religion, but in contemporary usage spirituality has often become associated with the interior life of the individual, placing an emphasis upon the well-being of the "mind-body-spirit", while religion refers to organizational or communal dimensions. Spirituality sometimes denotes noninstitutionalized or individualized religiosity. The interactions are complex since even conservative Christians designate themselves as "spiritual but not religious" to indicate a form of non-ritualistic personal faith.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Death anxiety</span> Anxiety caused by thoughts of death

Death anxiety is anxiety caused by thoughts of one's own death, and is also known as thanatophobia. Individuals affected by this kind of anxiety experience challenges and adversities in many aspects of their lives. Death anxiety is different from necrophobia, which refers to an irrational or disproportionate fear of dead bodies or of anything associated with death. Death anxiety has been found to affect people of differing demographic groups as well, such as men versus women, young versus old, etc. Different cultures can manifest aspects of death anxiety in differing degrees.

<i>Faith and Health</i> 2001 book edited by Thomas G. Plante and Allen C. Sherman

Faith and Health: Psychological Perspectives is a book of scientific psychology on the relationship between religious faith and health. Edited by Thomas G. Plante and Allen C. Sherman, the book was published in the United States in 2001.

Most scientists agree that religiosity is not an independent personality trait, despite there being some commonality between their characteristics. Religiosity and personality traits both relate to one's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. However, unlike for personality, one's level of religiosity is often measured by the presence or lack of belief in and relationship with a higher power, certain lifestyles or behaviors adopted for a higher power, and a sense of belonging with other followers of one's religion. Additionally, personality traits tend to follow a normal distribution, such that the majority of individuals' scores for a personality trait will be concentrated towards the middle, rather than being extremely high or low. Distributions for religiosity, however, follow a non-normal distribution, such that there are more individuals who score particularly high or low on religiosity scales.

One of the most common ways that people cope with trauma is through the comfort found in religious or spiritual practices. Psychologists of religion have performed multiple studies to measure the positive and negative effects of this coping style. Leading researchers have split religious coping into two categories: positive religious coping and negative religious coping. Individuals who use positive religious coping are likely to seek spiritual support and look for meaning in a traumatic situation. Negative religious coping expresses conflict, question, and doubt regarding issues of God and faith.

The relationship between religion and schizophrenia is of particular interest to psychiatrists because of the similarities between religious experiences and psychotic episodes. Religious experiences often involve reports of auditory and/or visual phenomena, which sounds seemingly similar to those with schizophrenia who also commonly report hallucinations and delusions. These symptoms may resemble the events found within a religious experience. However, the people who report these religious visual and audio hallucinations also claim to have not perceived them with their five senses, rather, they conclude these hallucinations were an entirely internal process. This differs from schizophrenia, where the person is unaware that their own thoughts or inner feelings are not happening outside of them. They report hearing, seeing, smelling, feeling, or tasting something that deludes them to believe it is real. They are unable to distinguish between reality and hallucinations because they experience these hallucinations with their bodily senses that leads them to perceive these events as happening outside of their mind. In general, religion has been found to have "both a protective and a risk increasing effect" for schizophrenia.

Spirituality affects both mental and physical health outcomes in the general United States population across different ethnic groups. Because of the nuanced definitions of spirituality and religiosity, the literature on spirituality is not consistent in definitions or measures resulting in a lack of coherence. However, taken as a whole, research tends to show that the effect of spirituality is positive, associated with better health outcomes. For those who engage in spirituality, it may serve as a buffer from negative life events, often moderating the relationship between negative life experiences and levels of anxiety or depression. The exception is when negative spiritual coping is practiced. This type of coping has negative health implications.

Well-being is a multifaceted topic studied in psychology, especially positive psychology. Biologically, well-being is highly influenced by endogenous molecules that impact happiness and euphoria in organisms, often referred to as "well-being related markers". Related concepts are eudaimonia, happiness, flourishing, quality of life, contentment, and meaningful life.

Healthcare chaplaincy is the provision of pastoral care, spiritual care, or chaplaincy services in healthcare settings, such as hospitals, hospices, or home cares.

David H. Rosmarin is an American psychologist who specializes in anxiety. He is an associate professor at Harvard Medical School and the founder of Center for Anxiety, which he directs. Rosmarin is also an author, and has worked as McLean Hospital's director of spirituality and mental health.

References

  1. ↑ "Constitution". www.who.int. Archived from the original on March 17, 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  2. ↑ "The Impact of Professional Spiritual Care". Association of Professional Chaplains. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
  3. ↑ Pargament, Kenneth (February 2013). "Understanding and addressing religion among people with mental illness". World Psychiatry. 12 (1): 26–32. doi:10.1002/wps.20005. PMC   3619169 . PMID   23471791.
  4. 1 2 Nelson, C.J., Rosenfeld, B., Breitbart, W., Galietta, M. (2002). Spirituality, religion, and depression in the terminally ill 43. Psychosomatics. pp. 213–220.
  5. ↑ Koenig, Harold G.; McCullough, Michael E.; Larson, David B. (2001). Handbook of Religion and Health (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-511866-7. OCLC   468554547.
  6. ↑ Koenig, Harold G.; King, Dana E.; Carson, Verna Benner (2012). Handbook of Religion and Health (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780195335958. OCLC   691927968.
  7. ↑ Powell, Lynda H.; Shahabi, Leila; Thoresen, Carl E. (2003). "Religion and spirituality: Linkages to physical health". American Psychologist . 58 (1): 36–52. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.404.4403 . doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.36. PMID   12674817.
  8. ↑ Seeman, Teresa E.; Dubin, Linda Fagan; Seeman, Melvin (2003). "Religiosity/spirituality and health: A critical review of the evidence for biological pathways". American Psychologist . 58 (1): 53–63. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.53. PMID   12674818. S2CID   15720859.
  9. ↑ Miller, William R.; Thoresen, Carl E. (2003). "Spirituality, religion, and health: An emerging research field". American Psychologist . 58 (1): 24–35. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.24. PMID   12674816. S2CID   3176180.
  10. ↑ Doug Oman & Carl E. Thoresen (2005), "Do religion and spirituality influence health?" In: Paloutzian, Raymond F.; Park, Crystal L. (Eds.) (2005). Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (1st ed.). New York: Guilford Press. pp. 435–459. ISBN   978-1572309227.
  11. ↑ Oman, Doug, ed. (2018). Why religion and spirituality matter for public health: evidence, implications, and resources. Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach. Vol. 2. Springer International. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-73966-3. ISBN   978-3-319-73966-3.
  12. ↑ Oman, Doug; Syme, S. Leonard (2018). "Weighing the Evidence: What is Revealed by 100+ Meta-Analyses and Systematic Reviews of Religion/Spirituality and Health?". In Oman, Doug (ed.). Why Religion and Spirituality Matter for Public Health. Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach. Vol. 2. Springer. pp. 261–281. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-73966-3_15. ISBN   9783319739656.
  13. ↑ "Constitution". www.who.int. Archived from the original on March 17, 2019. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
  14. ↑ Ellison CG, Levin JS (1998). "The religion-health connection: Evidence, theory, and future directions". Health Education & Behavior. 25 (6): 700–720. doi:10.1177/109019819802500603. PMID   9813743. S2CID   6835008.
  15. ↑ Koenig, Harold G. (16 December 2012). "Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications". ISRN Psychiatry. 2012: 278730. doi: 10.5402/2012/278730 . ISSN   2090-7966. PMC   3671693 . PMID   23762764.
  16. ↑ Shahabi L, Powell LH, Musick MA, Pargament KI, Thoresen CE, Williams D, et al. (2002). "Correlates of self-perceptions of spirituality in American adults". Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 24 (1): 59–68. doi:10.1207/s15324796abm2401_07. PMID   12008795. S2CID   3954058.
  17. ↑ Seybold KS, Hill PC (February 2001). "The Role Of Religion and Spirituality in Mental and Physical Health". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 10 (1): 21–24. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00106. JSTOR   20182684. S2CID   144109851.
  18. ↑ Koenig LB, Vaillant GE (2009). "A prospective study of church attendance and health over the lifespan". Health Psychology. 28 (1): 117–124. doi:10.1037/a0012984. PMID   19210025.
  19. ↑ Chatters, L. M. (2000). "Religion and health: Public health research and practices". Annual Review of Public Health. 21: 335–367. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.21.1.335 . PMID   10884957.
  20. ↑ Seeman T, Dubin LF, Seeman M (2003). "Religiosity/spirituality and health: A critical review of the evidence for biological pathways". American Psychologist. 58 (1): 53–63. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.58.1.53. PMID   12674818.
  21. ↑ Emmons RA, Paloutzian RF (2003). "The psychology of religion". Annual Review of Psychology. 54 (1): 377–402. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145024. PMID   12171998. S2CID   2246218.
  22. ↑ Bruce, Marino A.; Martins, David; Duru, Kenrik; Beech, Bettina M.; Sims, Mario; Harawa, Nina; Vargas, Roberto; Kermah, Dulcie; Nicholas, Susanne B.; Brown, Arleen; Norris, Keith C.; Abe, Takeru (16 May 2017). "Church attendance, allostatic load and mortality in middle aged adults". PLOS ONE. 12 (5): e0177618. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1277618B. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177618 . PMC   5433740 . PMID   28520779.
  23. ↑ Jacques Launay; Eiluned Pearce (October 28, 2015). "Choir singing improves health, happiness – and is the perfect icebreaker".
  24. 1 2 "With Longer Average Life Spans, Here's What Loma Linda Residents Teach us About Longevity". KTLA. 25 November 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
  25. ↑ Kark JD, Shemi G, Friedlander Y, Martin O, Manor O, Blondheim SH (March 1996). "Does religious observance promote health? mortality in secular vs religious kibbutzim in Israel". American Journal of Public Health. 86 (3): 341–6. doi:10.2105/ajph.86.3.341. PMC   1380514 . PMID   8604758.
  26. ↑ Pellerin, J.; Edmond, M. B. (2013). "Infections associated with religious rituals". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 17 (11): e945–e948. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2013.05.001 . PMID   23791225.
  27. ↑ Kannathasan, S.; Murugananthan, A.; Rajeshkannan, N.; Renuka de Silva, N. (25 January 2012). "Cutaneous Larva Migrans among Devotees of the Nallur Temple in Jaffna, Sri Lanka". PLOS ONE. 7 (1): e30516. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...730516K. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0030516 . PMC   3266239 . PMID   22295089.
  28. ↑ Masters, K.; Spielmans, G.; Goodson, J. (Aug 2006). "Are there demonstrable effects of distant intercessory prayer? A meta-analytic review". Annals of Behavioral Medicine . 32 (1): 21–6. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.599.3036 . doi:10.1207/s15324796abm3201_3. PMID   16827626. S2CID   3672308.
  29. ↑ Hodge, David R. (2007). "A Systematic Review of the Empirical Literature on Intercessory Prayer". Research on Social Work Practice. 17 (2): 174–187. doi:10.1177/1049731506296170. S2CID   43547918.
  30. ↑ Roberts L, Ahmed I, Hall S, Davison A (2009). "Intercessory prayer for the alleviation of ill health". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2009 (2): CD000368. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000368.pub3. PMC   7034220 . PMID   19370557.
  31. ↑ Strawbridge WJ, Cohen RD, Shema SJ, Kaplan GA (June 1997). "Frequent attendance at religious services and mortality over 28 years". American Journal of Public Health. 87 (6): 957–61. doi:10.2105/ajph.87.6.957. PMC   1380930 . PMID   9224176.
  32. ↑ Koenig, Harold G. (16 December 2012). "Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications". ISRN Psychiatry. 2012: 278730. doi: 10.5402/2012/278730 . PMC   3671693 . PMID   23762764.
  33. 1 2 Bradshaw, Matt; Kent, Blake Victor; Witvliet, Charlotte vanOyen; Johnson, Byron; Jang, Sung Joon; Leman, Joseph (2022). "Perceptions of Accountability to God and Psychological Well-Being Among US Adults". Journal of Religion and Health. 61 (1): 327–352. doi:10.1007/s10943-021-01471-8. PMID   35039960. S2CID   246002031 . Retrieved 9 March 2022.
  34. 1 2 "Study Examines Link Between Accountability to God and Psychological Well-Being". Neuroscience News. 2 March 2022. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
  35. ↑ Joshanloo, Mohsen; Weijers, Dan (2015-01-06). "Religiosity Reduces the Negative Influence of Injustice on Subjective Well-being: A Study in 121 Nations". Applied Research in Quality of Life. 11 (2): 601–612. doi:10.1007/s11482-014-9384-5. ISSN   1871-2584. S2CID   144655137.
  36. ↑ Joshanloo, Mohsen; Weijers, Dan (2015-07-28). "Religiosity Moderates the Relationship between Income Inequality and Life Satisfaction across the Globe". Social Indicators Research. 128 (2): 731–750. doi:10.1007/s11205-015-1054-y. ISSN   0303-8300. S2CID   141900668.
  37. ↑ Hill PC, Pargament KI (2008). "Advanced in the conceptualization and measurement of religion and spirituality: Implications for physical and mental health research". The American Psychologist. 58 (1): 3–17. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.404.7125 . doi:10.1037/1941-1022.s.1.3. PMID   12674819.
  38. ↑ Graham, J. (Feb 2010). "Beyond beliefs: religions bind individuals into moral communities". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 14 (1): 140–50. doi:10.1177/1088868309353415. PMID   20089848. S2CID   35043410.
  39. 1 2 Joshanloo, Mohsen; Weijers, Dan (2014-01-02). "Does thinking about the meaning of life make you happy in a religious and globalised world? A 75-nation study". Journal of Psychology in Africa. 24 (1): 73–81. doi:10.1080/14330237.2014.904093. ISSN   1433-0237. S2CID   146556482.
  40. ↑ Pargament KI (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Guilford. pp. 180–182. ISBN   978-1-57230-664-6 . Retrieved 25 April 2010.
  41. ↑ Bickel C, Ciarrocchi J, Sheers N, Estadt B (1998). "Perceived stress, religious coping styles and depressive affect". Journal of Psychology & Christianity. 17: 33–42. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
  42. ↑ Nelson, J. M. (2009). Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality . New York: Springer. pp.  326–327. ISBN   978-0-387-87572-9.
  43. ↑ Ano, Gene G. (Apr 2005). "Religious coping and psychological adjustment to stress: a meta-analysis". J Clin Psychol. 61 (4): 461–80. doi:10.1002/jclp.20049. PMID   15503316.
  44. ↑ Pargament, Kenneth I. (Apr 2000). "The many methods of religious coping: development and initial validation of the RCOPE". J Clin Psychol. 56 (4): 519–43. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(200004)56:4<519::AID-JCLP6>3.0.CO;2-1. PMID   10775045. S2CID   5100797.
  45. ↑ Gartner J, Larson DB, Allen GD (1991). "Religious commitment and mental health: A review of the empirical literature". Journal of Psychology & Theology. 19: 6–25. doi:10.1177/009164719101900102. S2CID   143034096.
  46. ↑ Vilchinsky N, Kravetz S (2005). "How are religious belief and behavior good for you? An investigation of mediators relating religion to mental health in a sample of Israeli Jewish students". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 44 (4): 459–471. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00297.x . Retrieved 25 April 2010.
  47. ↑ Fehring RJ, Miller JF, Shaw C (1997). "Spiritual well-being, religiosity, hope, depression, and other mood states in elderly people coping with cancer". Oncology Nursing Forum. 24 (4): 663–671. PMID   9159782.
  48. ↑ Nelson PB (2018). "Ethnic differences in intrinsic/extrinsic religious orientation and depression in the elderly". Archives of Psychiatric Nursing. 7 (2): 199–204. PMID   2774673.
  49. ↑ Fehring, R.J., Miller, J.F., Shaw, C. (1997). Spiritual well-being, religiosity, hope, depression, and other mood states in elderly people coping with cancer 24. Oncology Nursing Forum. pp. 663–671.
  50. ↑ Raj, Paul; Elizabeth, C. S.; Padmakumari, P. (31 December 2016). "Mental health through forgiveness: Exploring the roots and benefits". Cogent Psychology. 3: 1153817. doi: 10.1080/23311908.2016.1153817 . S2CID   73654630.
  51. ↑ Grover, Sandeep; Davuluri, Triveni; Chakrabarti, Subho (2014). "Religion, Spirituality, and Schizophrenia: A Review". Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine. 36 (2): 119–124. doi: 10.4103/0253-7176.130962 . ISSN   0253-7176. PMC   4031576 . PMID   24860209.
  52. ↑ Koenig, H. G. (2008) Research on religion, spirituality, and mental health: A review. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry.
  53. ↑ Sabatier, Colette; Mayer, Boris; Friedlmeier, Mihaela; Lubiewska, Katarzyna; Trommsdorff, Gisela (5 July 2011). "Religiosity, Family Orientation, and Life Satisfaction of Adolescents in Four Countries". Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 42 (8): 1375–1393. doi:10.1177/0022022111412343. S2CID   6628367 . Retrieved 5 January 2021.
  54. ↑ Joshanloo, Mohsen (2016-04-01). "Religiosity moderates the relationship between negative affect and life satisfaction: A study in 29 European countries". Journal of Research in Personality. 61: 11–14. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.01.001.
  55. ↑ Pargament, K. I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, practice. New York: Guilford Press.
  56. ↑ Trevino, K. M.; Pargament, K. I. (2007). "Religious coping with terrorism and natural disaster". Southern Medical Journal. 100 (9): 946–947. doi:10.1097/smj.0b013e3181454660. PMID   17902314. S2CID   38077957.
  57. ↑ Pargament, Kenneth I.; Smith, Bruce W.; Koenig, Harold G.; Perez, Lisa (1998). "Patterns of Positive and Negative Religious Coping with Major Life Stressors". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 37 (4): 710–724. doi:10.2307/1388152. ISSN   0021-8294. JSTOR   1388152.
  58. ↑ Henslee, Amber M.; Coffey, Scott F.; Schumacher, Julie A.; Tracy, Melissa; Norris, Fran; Galea, Sandro (2015). "Religious Coping and Psychological and Behavioral Adjustment after Hurricane Katrina". The Journal of Psychology. 149 (6): 630–642. doi:10.1080/00223980.2014.953441. ISSN   0022-3980. PMC   4745563 . PMID   25275223.
  59. ↑ Krok, D (2014). "The mediating role of coping in the relationships between religiousness and mental health". Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. 16 (2): 5–13. doi: 10.12740/APP/26313 .
  60. ↑ Larson, James S. (1996). "The World Health Organization's Definition of Health: Social versus Spiritual Health". Social Indicators Research. 38 (2): 181–192. doi:10.1007/BF00300458. ISSN   0303-8300. JSTOR   27522925. S2CID   144884323.
  61. ↑ Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2002, 80 (12)
  62. ↑ Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19–22 June 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948.
  63. ↑ Review of the Constitution of the World Health Organization: Report of the Executive Board Special Group. 101st Session. Agenda Item 7.3. 22 January 1998. Geneva: World Health Organization.
  64. ↑ Thirty-seventh World Health Assembly, Resolution WHA37.13. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1984. WHO document WHA37/1984/REC/1:6.
  65. ↑ The fourth ten years of the World Health Organization: 1978–1987. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2011.
  66. ↑ Draft Regional Health-for-all Policy and Strategy for the Twenty-First Century. World Health Organization Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean. Forty-fifth Session, Agenda item 15.
  67. ↑ World Health Organization Publication: Year 1991. Issue 9290211407. Chapter 4: The Spiritual Dimension.
  68. ↑ Sitarz, Dan. "Agenda 21: The earth summit strategy to save our planet." (1993).
  69. ↑ Agenda 21. Chapter 6.23. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Rio de Janeiro, 1992.

Further reading

Spiritual health

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.