Religion and alcohol have a complex history. The world's religions have had different relationships with alcohol, reflecting diverse cultural, social, and religious practices across different traditions. While some religions strictly prohibit alcohol consumption, viewing it as sinful or harmful to spiritual and physical well-being, others incorporate it into their rituals and ceremonies. Throughout history, alcohol has held significant roles in religious observances, from the use of sacramental wine in Christian sacraments to the offering and moderate drinking of omiki (sacramental sake) in Shinto purification rituals.
In Christianity, attitudes towards alcohol have shifted over time, with some denominations advocating for moderation while others promote abstinence. The use of sacramental wine in religious rites, such as the Eucharist, underscores its symbolic significance within Christian theology. Similarly, Hinduism in Śruti texts such as Vedas and Upanishads, strong consumption of alcohol or intoxication is considered as a recipe of weakness, while In Smriti texts, the verses encourage the use of alcohol. In Islam, the consumption of alcohol is strictly prohibited according to Islamic teachings, reflecting its foundational role in shaping Muslim identity.
Across various religious traditions, attitudes toward alcohol mirror broader societal norms and values, influencing individual behaviors and attitudes. Research on the correlation between religiosity and alcohol consumption reveals the complex interplay between religious affiliation, cultural context, and drinking patterns. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for informing public health initiatives and interventions aimed at addressing alcohol-related issues within specific religious communities.
As societies grapple with the complexities of alcohol consumption, further exploration of the intersection between religion, culture, and health behaviors provides valuable insights into how individuals navigate their religious and social identities concerning alcohol.
Baháʼí Faith
The teachings of the Baháʼí Faith forbids the consumption of alcohol and other drugs unless prescribed by a physician. Intoxicants take away reason, interfere with making moral decisions, and harm the mind and body. Baháʼís are also encouraged to avoid jobs related to the production or sale of alcohol and are forbidden from involvement in the drug trade. Those addicted to alcohol or other drugs should seek medical assistance from doctors and/or support from organizations dedicated to curing addiction.[1]
There are various Buddhist tantric traditions with the goal of attaining Enlightenment which are called by different names[note 1] such as Vajrayana, Secret Mantra, and Mantrayana.[3][4] The Indo-Tibetan Buddhist tradition has been dominant in Tibet and the Himalayan regions.[3] It first spread to Tibet in the 8th century and quickly rose to prominence.[5] The Tibetan Buddhist tantric teachings have recently been spread to the Western world by the Tibetan diaspora. Nepalese Newar Buddhism meanwhile is still practiced in the Kathmandu Valley by the Newar people. The tradition maintains a canon of Sanskrit texts, the only Buddhist tantric tradition to still do so.
In Tibetan Buddhism, it is traditional to offer a tsok (Tib. for ganachakra) to Padmasambhava or other deities, usually gurus, on the tenth lunar day, and to a form of dakini such as Yeshe Tsogyal, Mandarava or Vajrayogini on the twenty-fifth lunar day. Generally, participants are required by their samaya (bond or vow) to partake of meat and alcohol, and the rite tends to have elements symbolic of coitus. Traditions of the Ganachakra liturgy and rite extends remains of food and other compassionate offerings to alleviate the insatiable hunger of the hungry ghosts, genius loci and other entities.[6]
The use of these substances is related to the non-dual (advaya) nature of a Buddha's wisdom (buddhajñana). Since the ultimate state is in some sense non-dual, a practitioner can approach that state by "transcending attachment to dual categories such as pure and impure, permitted and forbidden". As the Guhyasamaja Tantra states "the wise man who does not discriminate achieves Buddhahood".[7]
In some Christian denominations, the practitioners take a sip of alcoholic wine in the sacrament that does not rise the blood alcohol content, but non-alcoholic red wine is more common.
Throughout the first 1,800 years of Church history, Christians generally consumed alcoholic beverages as a common part of everyday life and used "the fruit of the vine"[8] in their central rite—the Eucharist or Lord's Supper.[9][10] They held that both the Bible and Christian tradition taught that alcohol is a gift from God that makes life more joyous, but that over-indulgence leading to drunkenness is sinful or at least a vice.[11][12]
However, the attempt has often been made to prove that the wine referred to in the Bible was non-alcoholic. As the Bible had written in Genesis 9:21, the story of Noah's first experience with the wine he had made shows that it was intoxicating.[13]
Genesis 9: 21. "And he drank of the wine, and was drunken; and he was uncovered within his tent."[14]
In this chapter, it is apparent that the wine Noah drank had an intoxicating effect on him since he became drunk. Scholars and theologians have used this incident to argue that alcoholic wine existed in biblical times.[13] The allusion to Noah's intoxication emphasizes the presence of fermented and alcoholic drinks, opposing theories that biblical wine could have been substituted with non-alcoholic beverages. The interaction of these stories in the Bible continues to be a source of controversy and discussion over the nature and significance of alcoholic beverages in biblical theology and history.
289. What are the visible elements in the Sacrament?
The visible elements are bread and wine.
935. Matt. 26:26-27 Jesus took bread … Then He took the cup.
Note: “The fruit of the vine” (Luke 22:18) in the Bible means wine, not grape juice. See also 1 Cor. 11:21[18]
Some Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) congregations make grape juice available for children and those who are abstaining from alcohol and some will accommodate those with an allergy to wheat, gluten, or grapes.[19]
Methodist Churches
Churches in the Methodist tradition (inclusive of those aligned with the holiness movement) require that "pure, unfermented juice of the grape" be used in the sacrament of Holy Communion.[20]
In the mid-19th century, some Protestant Christians moved from a position of allowing moderate use of alcohol (sometimes called moderationism) to either deciding that not imbibing was wisest in the present circumstances (abstentionism) or prohibiting all ordinary consumption of alcohol because it was believed to be a sin (prohibitionism).[21] Many Protestant churches, particularly Methodists and other Evangelical groups, advocate for abstentionism and prohibitionism, being early leaders in the temperance movement of the 19th and 20th centuries; the Book of Discipline of the Evangelical Methodist Church Conference, for example, teaches:[22]
Intemperance is excess of any kind of action, or indulgence, or exertion of body or mind, or any indulgence of appetites or passions which are injurious to the person, or contrary to morality. The scriptures teach us to be temperate in all things (I Cor. 9:25), this includes total abstinence from all that has the appearance of evil. No member shall be permitted to use, manufacture or sell intoxicating liquors, tobacco, or recreational drugs. ... The use of intoxicating liquors as a beverage, or trafficking therein; giving influence to, or voting for, the licensing of places for the sale of the same; using tobacco in any of its forms, or trafficking therein, is forbidden.[22]
Alcohol in the Bible explores the dual role of alcohol, highlighting its positive uses and warnings against excess. In biblical narratives, the fermentation of fruit into wine holds significance, with grapes and wine often linked to both celebration and cautionary tales of sin and temptation, reminiscent of the concept of the forbidden fruit.
Hinduism
Hinduism does not have a central authority which is followed by all Hindus, though religious texts generally discourage the use or consumption of alcohol. Brahmins are also forbidden from drinking alcohol. However, some texts refer to alcohol with a more positive opinion.
In Śruti texts such as Vedas and Upanishads which are the most authoritative texts in Hinduism and considered apauruṣeya, which means "authorless", intoxication is considered as a recipe of sinfulness, weakness, failure and violent behaviour in several verses:
One becomes sinful if he or she crosses even one of the 7 restraints. Yaskacharya defines these 7 sins in his Nirukta as: Theft, Adultery, Murder of a noble person, Jealousy, Dishonesty, Repeating misdeeds and consumption of alcohol.
An action performed as per the inner voice does not lead to sins. Dumb arrogance against inner voice, however, is source of frustration and miseries in same manner as intoxication and gambling destroy us. Ishwar inspires those with noble elevated thoughts towards progress and propels down those who decide to think lowly. Lowly acts performed even in dreams cause decline.
Weak minds are attracted towards meat, alcohol, sensuality and womanizing. But O non-violent mind, you focus your mind towards the world in same manner as a mother cares for her child.
A person who steals gold, or drinks liquor, or goes to bed with his teacher's wife, or kills a brāhmin—these four are lost. Also lost is the fifth—one who keeps company with such people.
In Smriti texts which are considered less authoritative than Sruti, the verses contradict each other and encourage the use of alcohol but remind of abstention being better. In Hindu texts, particularly the Dharma Shastras, the consumption of alcohol is addressed with varying levels of restriction based on caste. The Manu Smriti, a key text outlining the norms and codes of conduct for various social classes, prescribes different regulations for alcohol consumption among castes. While the Kshatriya caste, comprising warriors and rulers, is allowed to consume alcohol in moderation as part of their social and ceremonial functions, the Brahmin caste, consisting of priests, scholars, and teachers, is generally discouraged from consuming alcohol due to their spiritual and religious responsibilities. For the Vaishya caste, which includes merchants and traders, and the Shudra caste, comprising laborers and service providers, the Manu Smriti lays down specific rules and restrictions regarding alcohol consumption. It is important to note that the caste-based rules on alcohol consumption, like many other aspects of the caste system, have been subject to criticism and reinterpretation in modern times. Contemporary Hinduism has seen a shift towards a more egalitarian perspective, emphasizing individual choice and responsibility in matters such as alcohol consumption, rather than strict adherence to caste-based rules.
A twice-born person, having, through folly, drunk wine, shall drink wine red-hot; he becomes freed from his guilt, when his body has been completely burnt by it.
There is no sin in the eating of meat, nor in wine, nor in sexual intercourse, Such is the natural way of living beings; but abstention is conducive to great rewards.
The ten intoxicating drinks are unclean for a Brahmana; but a Kshatriya and a Vaishya commit no wrong in drinking them.
—Vishnu Smrti 22:84
Any brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇa's wife who drinks liquor is taken by the agents of Yamarāja to the hell known as Ayaḥpāna. This hell also awaits any kṣatriya, vaiśya, or person under a vow who in illusion drinks soma-rasa. In Ayaḥpāna the agents of Yamarāja stand on their chests and pour hot melted iron into their mouths.
The hell named Kaṣmala is full of phlegm and nasal mucus. The man who takes interest in wine and flesh is cast into that hell and kept there for the period of a Kalpa.
The wretched Brahmana who from this day, unable to resist the temptation, will drink wine shall be regarded as having lost his virtue, shall be reckoned to have committed the sin of slaying a Brahmana, shall be hated both in this and the other worlds. I set this limit to the conduct and dignity of Brahmanas everywhere. Let the honest, let Brahmanas, let those with regard for their superiors, let the gods, let the three worlds, listen!.
Sutra 3.4.31 "And hence the scriptural text prohibiting license. (For this reason also the scripture is against doing according to desire)" There are scriptural passages prohibiting one from doing everything just as one pleases. License freedom from all discipline, cannot help us to attain Knowledge. "Therefore a Brahmana must not drink liquor" (Kathaka Sam.). Such Sruti texts are meant for this discipline.[32]
Tantra is an esotericyogic tradition that developed on the Indian subcontinent from the middle of the 1st millennium CE onwards in both Hinduism and Buddhism.[34] Early Tantric practices are sometimes attributed to Shaiva ascetics associated with Bhairava, the Kapalikas ("skull men", also called Somasiddhatins or Mahavartins).[35][36][37] Besides the tradition of frequenting cremation grounds and carrying human skulls, little is known about them, and there is a paucity of primary sources on the Kapalikas.[38][37] Samuel also states that the sources depict them as using alcohol and sex freely, that they were associated with terrfying female spirit-deities called dakinis, and that they were believed to possess magical powers, such as flight.[39]
Flood states that the pioneers of Tantra were probably non-Brahmanical and possibly part of an ancient tradition.[40][41][42] By the early medieval times, their practices may have included the imitation of deities such as Kali and Bhairava, with offerings of non-vegetarian food, alcohol and sexual substances. According to this theory, these practitioners would have invited their deities to enter them, then reverted the role in order to control that deity and gain its power.[43] These ascetics would have been supported by low castes living at the cremation places.[43]
In the non-dual and transgressive (or "left hand") traditions like the Kali cults and the Trika school, rituals and pujas can include certain left hand path elements that are not found in the more orthodox traditions. These transgressive elements include the use of skulls and other human bone implements (as part of the Kapalika vow), fierce deities like Bhairava, Kubjika and Kali which were used as part of meditative visualizations, ritual possession by the deities (avesa), sexual rites and offering the deity (as well as consuming) certain impure substances like meat, alcohol and sexual fluids.[44] Padoux explains the transgressive practices as follows:
On the ritual and mental plane, transgression was an essential trait by which the nondualistic Tantric traditions set themselves apart from other traditions – so much so that they used the term "nondualistic practice" (advaitacara) to refer to the Kaula transgressive practices as a rejection of the duality (dvaita) of pure and impure in brahmanical society. Let us also note that for the nondualistic Saiva systems, the Yoginis were not active merely in the world of spirits; they were also powers present in humans – mistresses of their senses, governing their affects, which acquired an intensity and super-natural dimension through this divinization. This led adepts to an identification of their individual consciousness with the infinite divine Consciousness, thus also helping them transcend the sexual plane.[45]
These practices are often seen as a way to expand one's consciousness through the use of bliss.[45] Some ascetic sects, like the Aghori, also use alcohol as part of their rituals.[46][47]
Islam
The complex interplay between Islam, alcohol, and identity has been a subject of exploration in academic discourse. It raises questions about how religious beliefs and cultural practices shape individuals' relationships with alcohol and, in turn, influence their identity.[48] In the context of Islam, the consumption of alcohol is prohibited in accordance with Islamic teachings, as it is seen as detrimental to both physical and spiritual well-being. This prohibition is often a foundational aspect of Muslim identity, reflecting a commitment to faith and adherence to religious principles. However, the relationship between Islam, and alcohol is multifaceted and influenced by factors such as cultural context, personal beliefs, and degrees of religiosity.
In the Quran, khamr, meaning "wine", is variably referenced as an incentive from Satan, as well as a cautionary note against its adverse effect on human attitude in several verses:
O you who have believed, indeed, intoxicants, gambling, [sacrificing on] stone altars [to other than Allah], and divining arrows are but defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid it that you may be successful.
—Surat 5:90
Satan only wants to cause between you animosity and hatred through intoxicants and gambling and to avert you from the remembrance of Allah and from prayer. So will you not desist?
—Surat 5:91
Another verse acknowledges the harms of wine and gambling:
They ask you about wine and gambling. Say, In them is great sin and benefit for people. But their sin is greater than their benefit." And they ask you what they should spend. Say, "The excess [beyond needs]. Thus Allah makes clear to you the verses [of revelation] that you might give thought.
—Surat 2:219
And from the fruits of the palm trees and grapevines you take intoxicant and good provision. Indeed in that is a sign for a people who reason.
—Surat 16:67
The Quran states that one of the delights of Paradise for the righteous is wine as a promise by God.
Is the description of Paradise, which the righteous are promised, wherein are rivers of water unaltered, rivers of milk the taste of which never changes, rivers of wine delicious to those who drink, and rivers of purified honey, in which they will have from all [kinds of] fruits and forgiveness from their Lord, like [that of] those who abide eternally in the Fire and are given to drink scalding water that will sever their intestines?
—Surat 47:15
Muhammad cautioned against drinking, warning of repenting in afterlife:[49]
Whoever drinks alcoholic drinks in the world and does not repent (before dying), will be deprived of it in the Hereafter.
—Sahih al-Bukhari 5575
It is also narrated that when a Muslim drinks alcohol, he is no longer a Muslim.[50]
An adulterer, at the time he is committing illegal sexual intercourse is not a believer; and a person, at the time of drinking an alcoholic drink is not a believer; and a thief, at the time of stealing, is not a believer.
—Sahih al-Bukhari 5578
Islamic countries have low rates of alcohol consumption. However, a minority of Muslims do drink and believe consuming alcohol is not Qur'anically forbidden (haram).[51][52]
During the time of Muhammad
According to Sunnihadiths (which are not universally accepted by Muslims), the prohibition of alcohol came many years after Muhammad had started his mission. It is reported that Jābir ibn Abd Allah (جابِر بن عَبْد الله) narrated: "Some people drank alcoholic beverages in the morning [of the day] of the 'Uhud battle and on the same day they were killed as martyrs, and that was before wine was prohibited."[53] 'Anas ibn Mālik (أَنَس بن مالِك) narrated that the people said: "...some people [Muslims] were killed in the Battle of 'Uhud while wine was in their stomachs.' [...] So Allah revealed: 'There is not upon those who believe and do righteousness [any] blame concerning what they have eaten [in the past] if they [now] fear Allah and believe and do righteous deeds...'"[54] [sura 5:93[55]]
Another significant scholarly work, written by Mustapha Sheikh and Tajul Islam, titled “Islam, Alcohol, and Identity: Towards a Critical Muslim Studies Approach” explores the complex intersection of Islam, alcohol, and identity. It delves into critical Muslim studies to analyze how Muslims negotiate their religious beliefs and cultural practices, particularly in relation to alcohol consumption. They seeks to unravel the nuances of how Muslims navigate their identities in societies where alcohol is prevalent and how they negotiate the intersection of their faith with the broader cultural landscape. Within this work, they highlights that nearly all schools of law in Islam talk about how alcoholic beverages wine from grapes and dates are considered to be absolutely prohibited. However, they are permissible to drink up until the point of intoxication.[56]
Permitted alcohol use in separate islamic divisions
Alawites
Various Alawite rituals involve the drinking of wine and the sect does not prohibit the consumption of alcoholic drinks on its adherents.[57]
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Jainism
In Jainism, no alcohol consumption of any kind is allowed, neither are there any exceptions like occasional or social drinking. The most important reason against alcohol consumption is the effect of alcohol on the mind and soul. In Jainism, any action or reaction that alter or impacts the mind is violence (himsa) towards own self, which is a five-sense human being. Violence to other five sense beings or to own self is violence. Jains do not consume fermented foods (beer, wine and other alcohols) to avoid killing of a large number of microorganisms associated with the fermenting process.[60]
In Jewish tradition, wine holds an essential place in various religious rituals and celebrations. Many Jews embrace a moderate and responsible approach to alcohol, often emphasized during religious observances and social gatherings. While alcohol is integral to these sacred rituals, Jewish teachings also promote moderation and temperance, encouraging individuals to avoid excessive drinking.[61] This approach aligns with a broader commitment to health and well-being. Wine is used during the Sabbath and festival meals as part of the Kiddush blessing, which sanctifies the day and acknowledges the sanctity of the occasion. Wine also plays a prominent role in the Passover Seder, where participants drink four cups of wine to symbolize the four expressions of redemption mentioned in the Torah. Moreover, wine is used in the Jewish wedding ceremony, where the bride and groom share a cup of wine under the chuppah (wedding canopy) as a symbol of their union and commitment to one another. Additionally, Jewish communities may provide support and resources for those struggling with alcohol-related issues, reflecting a compassionate and community-centered approach to addressing alcohol problems.[62]
The Torah
The biblical narrative records the positive and negative aspects of wine.
Wine is a beverage of significance and import, utilized in ceremonies, for example, celebrating Abraham's military victory and successful liberation of Lot,[63] festive meals,[64][65] and the libations comprising the sacrificial service.[66]
In Gen. 9:20–27, Noah becomes intoxicated from his wine on exiting the ark and lies unclothed in his tent where his youngest son, Ham, discovers Noah asleep, and "views his (Noah's) nakedness." Noah becomes aware of this the following day and curses Ham's son Canaan.[67] In Gen. 19:31–37, in the aftermath of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Lot became inebriated on wine and had sexual intercourse with his two daughters. Moab (the father of the biblical nation by the same name) and Ben-Ammi (the father of the nation of Ammon) were born to Lot of this incest with his daughters.[68] Religious service in the Temple must be void of consumption of alcohol or wine, as the priests are admonished, "Do not drink wine nor strong drink... when you enter the tabernacle of the congregation, lest you die."[69]
In halakha
Halakha (Jewish law) mandates the use of wine in various religious ceremonies (such as sanctifying the Sabbath and festivals with wine at their start and conclusion, and at circumcision and at marriage ceremonies).[70] The beverage required as "wine" by Jewish law generally permits the use of a non-alcoholic grape extraction (grape juice) for all ceremonies requiring wine.[71][72] When necessary (i.e., when wine and grape juice are both unavailable), other beverages are also permitted for kiddush.[73]
Excessive consumption and drunkenness, however are discouraged. According to the thirteenth century Orchot Chaim, as quoted in Beit Yosef "inebriation is entirely prohibited and there is no greater sin than drunkenness" and it is "the cause of many sins".[74]
A Nazirite voluntarily takes a vow to abstain from grapes or any of their byproducts (including wine), he refrains cutting the hair on his head, and he may not become ritually impure by contact with corpses or graves.[75] While one motivation for becoming a Nazirite may be a reaction to "risky behaviors" associated with alcohol use disorder (Tractate Sotah, BT 2a), the term of the vow of the Nazirite is ordinarily a fixed term, with grapes and wine again permitted at the end of the term.
Contemporary Judaism
Anecdotal evidence supports that Jewish communities, on the whole, view alcoholic consumption more negatively than Protestant Christian groups. The small sample of Jews viewed alcohol as destructive while a sample of Protestants referred to it as "relaxing".[76] The proliferation of "kiddush clubs" in some synagogues, and the institutional backlash to that proliferation, however, may provide an indication of growing awareness of alcohol use disorder issues in Jewish communities. A number of specifically Jewish non-profit addiction rehabilitation and education programs, such as the Chabad Residential Treatment Center in Los Angeles[77] and Retorno in Israel,[78] provide treatment for alcohol use disorder (and other substance use disorders) within a specifically Jewish framework for recovery. The non-profit Jewish institutions are supplemented by for-profit rehab centers with a Jewish focus.
Sake is often consumed as part of Shinto purification rituals.[79] Sakes served to kami (gods) as offerings prior to drinking are called Omiki(お神酒).[80] People drink Omiki with gods to communicate with them and to solicit rich harvests the following year.
Additionally, the sharing of sake between participants in a Shinto ceremony is seen as a means of fostering friendship and strengthening the bonds within the community.
Sikhism
An initiated Sikh cannot use or consume intoxicants, of which wine is one.[81] Sikh rehtnamas (ethical codes) and hymns from the Guru Granth Sahib are both used to support the Sikh prohibitions on using mind-altering substances.[82]
Despite the prohibitions on substance use, some Sikh individuals do still use alcohol and other intoxicants.[83] In Sikh beliefs, one who becomes addicted to or dependent upon substances may be seen as following the path of the manmukh, the individualized and ego-oriented person. The solution, according to Sikh traditions, is to turn to the path of the gurmukh, a process of self-integration and devotion to unity with the primordial essense of the universe known as EkOnkar.[82] Due to the prohibition on using mind-altering substances, some Sikh individuals struggle to seek help with substance use disorders due to stigma.[84]
Taoism
In Taoist rituals and practices, alcohol also plays a role as an offering and a means of connecting with the divine. An alcoholic beverage is often used in religious ceremonies and as an offering to the ancestors. The use of alcohol in Taoist rituals can symbolize purification, blessings, and the establishment of a sacred space. In these instances, the consumption of alcohol is done in a controlled and mindful manner, reflecting the Taoist emphasis on balance and harmony.[citation needed]
The ceremony calls for five officers: a Priest, a Priestess, a Deacon, and two adult acolytes, called "the Children". The end of the ritual culminates in the consummation of the eucharist, consisting of a goblet of wine and a Cake of Light, after which the congregant proclaims "There is no part of me that is not of the gods!"[86]
Vodou (Voodoo)
In the Vodou faith of Haiti, alcoholic drinks such as rum are consumed to be able to allow spirits called "lwa" to enter one's body and help them find the motivation for or strength to survive everyday struggles or life.[87]
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In Ancient Egyptian religion, beer and wine were drunk and offered to the gods in rituals and festivals. Beer and wine were also stored with the mummified dead in Egyptian burials.[88] Other ancient religious practices like Chinese ancestor worship, Sumerian and Babylonian religion used alcohol as offerings to gods and to the deceased. The Mesopotamian cultures had various wine gods and a Chinese imperial edict (c. 1,116 B.C.) states that drinking alcohol in moderation is prescribed by Heaven.[88]
Ancient Greek religion
Bacchus pours wine from a cup for a panther, while Silenus plays the lyre, c. 30 BC.
In the ancient Mediterranean world, the Cult of Dionysus and the Orphic mysteries used wine as part of their religious practices. During Dionysian festivals and rituals, wine was drunk as way to reach ecstatic states along with music and dance. Intoxication from alcohol was seen as a state of possession by spirit of the god of wine Dionysus. Religious drinking festivals called Bacchanalia were popular in Italy and associated with the gods Bacchus and Liber. These Dionysian rites were frequently outlawed by the Roman Senate.[89]
The Maya used enemas, a procedure in which liquid or gas is injected into the rectum, to manage certain substances in order to intensify the effect of the drug.[90] Archaeological evidence provides us with ceramic goods that depict images in which psychedelic enemas were utilized in rituals; some figures are vomiting while others receive enemas. The paintings on ceramic vessels from the Mayan late classic period show pots overflowing with foam from fermented drinks, depict individuals talking to one another as they receive enemas.[90]
The Maya also consumed an alcoholic beverage called balché, which is an infusion of the bark of Lonchocarpus longistylus (see page Lonchocarpus violaceus) mixed with honey from bees fed on a type of morning glory with a high ergine content.[91] Intoxication was associated with the practice of divination, a ritual meant to facilitate direct interaction with the spirits to foretell the future or understand events that would otherwise be unclear, including illness, a shift in fortune, and the results of war. Since the alcoholic content of balaché seemed to have been relatively low, it had to be ingested in large quantities to reach a significant level of drunkenness.[92]
Norse religion
In the Norse religion the drinking of ales and meads was important in several seasonal religious festivals such as Yule and Midsummer as well as more common festivities like wakes, christenings and ritual sacrifices called Blóts.[93]
Health
Research has been conducted by social scientists and epidemiologists to see if correlations exist between religiosity and alcoholism.[91][94] It showed that, in Ireland, religious teenagers have a more restricted attitude towards alcohol, but the study was limited to Christianity.[91] By contrast, in America, the extent of the correlation between alcohol consumption and religion depended upon religious denomination.[94]
The association between drinking alcohol and one's religious affiliation has been the subject of research, which has shown that it is not always the same across religions. Due to the moral and social precepts of their religion, several religious groups place a strong emphasis in control, which results in lower rates of alcohol consumption among its followers. In contrast, risk factors may support or tolerate excessive alcohol consumption within some religious communities.
In James B. Holt, Jacqueline W. Miller, Timothy S. Naimi and Daniel Z. Sui work, titled "Religious Affiliation and Alcohol Consumption in the United States," provides a comprehensive examination of the relationship between religious affiliation and alcohol consumption within the United States.[95] The study observes the distinct pattern within the religious groups. Some denominations have traditionally upheld temperance as a core value, which results in lower rates of alcohol consumption due to the moral and societal teachings of their faith. On the other hand, they study also underscores the presence of risk factors within certain religious communities where excessive alcohol may be use, tolerates, or even encourages. Understanding these nuances is crucial for public health initiatives and interventions aimed at reducing alcohol related problems within specific religious contexts.
Consumption of alcohol and religious affiliation in the United States
Alcohol and Usage Literature
Alcohol consumption in America and its connection to religious affiliation is a significant sociological and cultural issue. In the United States, different religious traditions have different views on alcohol, ranging from full abstinence in certain faiths to the promotion of responsible and moderate usage in others. This variety reflects the varied society of the nation, where followers of many faiths deal with alcohol in various ways.
The research article titled "Religious Affiliation and Alcohol Consumption in the United States" by James B. Holt, Jacqueline W. Miller, Timothy S. Naimi, and Daniel Z. Sui, provides a comprehensive analysis of the connection. This study offers important insights on the patterns of alcohol use among people based on their religious affiliations by drawing on vast data. Based on the research, studies have shown that alcohol consumption is greater in the Northeast, the Midwest, and the West and that consumption tends to be greater in metropolitan areas than in nonmetropolitan areas. [96]
In addition, Gayle M. Wells' study titled "The effect of religiosity and campus alcohol culture on collegiate alcohol consumption,"[97] the complex relationship between religiosity, campus culture, and alcohol consumption among college students is meticulously examined. By employing reference group theory as a theoretical framework, Wells explores the ways in which the behavior and attitudes of peers and the broader campus environment impact the alcohol consumption patterns of college students who may hold varying levels of religiosity. The research reveal that students who identify as highly religious (e.g., attending religious services regularly, engaging in religious practices) are less likely to consume alcohol and engage in binge drinking compared to their less religious peers. This outcome could be attributed to the strong moral and religious values held by highly religious students, which discourage alcohol consumption. However, even among highly religious students, those who are exposed to a pervasive campus alcohol culture are more likely to engage in alcohol consumption compared to their counterparts in a more alcohol-restricted campus environment.
A drink or beverage is a liquid intended for human consumption. In addition to their basic function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture. Common types of drinks include plain drinking water, milk, juice, smoothies and soft drinks. Traditionally warm beverages include coffee, tea, and hot chocolate. Caffeinated drinks that contain the stimulant caffeine have a long history.
Alcohol intoxication, commonly described in higher doses as drunkenness or inebriation, and known in overdose as alcohol poisoning, is the behavior and physical effects caused by recent consumption of alcohol. The technical term intoxication in common speech may suggest that a large amount of alcohol has been consumed, leading to accompanying physical symptoms and deleterious health effects. Mild intoxication is mostly referred to by slang terms such as tipsy or buzzed. In addition to the toxicity of ethanol, the main psychoactive component of alcoholic beverages, other physiological symptoms may arise from the activity of acetaldehyde, a metabolite of alcohol. These effects may not arise until hours after ingestion and may contribute to a condition colloquially known as a hangover.
Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented fruit. Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruit and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Wine is most often made from grapes, and the term "wine" generally refers to grape wine when used without any qualification. Even so, wine can be made from a variety of fruit crops, including plum, cherry, pomegranate, blueberry, currant, and elderberry.
There is a long history of alcoholic drinks in China. They include rice and grape wine, beer, whisky and various liquors including baijiu, the most-consumed distilled spirit in the world.
Drinking culture is the set of traditions and social behaviours that surround the consumption of alcoholic beverages as a recreational drug and social lubricant. Although alcoholic beverages and social attitudes toward drinking vary around the world, nearly every civilization has independently discovered the processes of brewing beer, fermenting wine, and distilling spirits, among other practices. Many countries have developed their own regional cultures based on unique traditions around the fermentation and consumption of alcohol, which may also be known as a beer culture, wine culture etc. after a particularly prominent type of drink.
Liquor or distilled beverages are alcoholic drinks produced by the distillation of grains, fruits, vegetables, or sugar that have already gone through alcoholic fermentation. Other terms for liquor include spirit, spirituous liquor or hard liquor. While the word liquor ordinarily refers to distilled alcoholic spirits rather than beverages produced by fermentation alone, it can sometimes be used more broadly to refer to any alcoholic beverage.
Many religions have expressed positions on what is acceptable to consume as a means of intoxication for spiritual, pleasure, or medicinal purposes. Psychoactive substances may also play a significant part in the development of religion and religious views as well as in rituals.
Purposeful production of alcoholic drinks is common and often reflects cultural and religious peculiarities as much as geographical and sociological conditions.
The Islamic dietary laws (halal) and the Jewish dietary laws are both quite detailed, and contain both points of similarity and discord. Both are the dietary laws and described in distinct religious texts: an explanation of the Islamic code of law found in the Quran and Sunnah and the Jewish code of laws found in the Torah, Talmud and Shulchan Aruch.
Christian views on alcohol are varied. Throughout the first 1,800 years of Church history, Christians generally consumed alcoholic beverages as a common part of everyday life and used "the fruit of the vine" in their central rite—the Eucharist or Lord's Supper. They held that both the Bible and Christian tradition taught that alcohol is a gift from God that makes life more joyous, but that over-indulgence leading to drunkenness is sinful. However, the alcoholic content of ancient alcoholic beverages was significantly lower than that of modern alcoholic beverages. The low alcoholic content was due to the limitations of fermentation and the nonexistence of distillation methods in the ancient world. Rabbinic teachers wrote acceptance criteria on consumability of ancient alcoholic beverages after significant dilution with water, and prohibited undiluted wine.
Alcoholic beverages appear in the Hebrew Bible, after Noah planted a vineyard and became inebriated. In the New Testament, Jesus miraculously made copious amounts of wine at the wedding at Cana. Wine is the most common alcoholic beverage mentioned in biblical literature, where it is a source of symbolism, and was an important part of daily life in biblical times. Additionally, the inhabitants of ancient Israel drank beer and wines made from fruits other than grapes, and references to these appear in scripture. However, the alcohol content of ancient alcoholic beverages was significantly lower than modern alcoholic beverages. The low alcohol content was due to the limitations of fermentation and the nonexistence of distillation methods in the ancient world. Rabbinic teachers wrote acceptance criteria on consumability of ancient alcoholic beverages after significant dilution with water, and prohibited undiluted wine.
An alcoholic beverage is a beverage containing alcohol (ethanol). Alcoholic drinks are typically divided into three classes—beers, wines, and spirits—and typically their alcohol content is between 3% and 50%.
Alcohol laws are laws relating to manufacture, use, being under the influence of and sale of alcohol or alcoholic beverages. Common alcoholic beverages include beer, wine, (hard) cider, and distilled spirits. Definition of alcoholic beverage varies internationally, e.g., the United States defines an alcoholic beverage as "any beverage in liquid form which contains not less than one-half of one percent of alcohol by volume". Alcohol laws can restrict those who can produce alcohol, those who can buy it, when one can buy it, labelling and advertising, the types of alcoholic beverage that can be sold, where one can consume it, what activities are prohibited while intoxicated, and where one can buy it. In some cases, laws have even prohibited the use and sale of alcohol entirely.
Winemaking has a long tradition in Egypt dating back to the 3rd millennium BC. The modern wine industry is relatively small scale but there have been significant strides towards reviving the industry. In the late nineties the industry invited international expertise in a bid to improve the quality of Egyptian wine, which used to be known for its poor quality. In recent years Egyptian wines have received some recognition, having won several international awards. In 2013 Egypt produced 4,500 tonnes of wine, ranking 54th globally, ahead of Belgium and the United Kingdom.
Alcohol has been illegal for Muslim Iranian citizens since the establishment of Islamic Republic government in 1979.
Noah's wine is a colloquial allusion meaning alcoholic beverages. The advent of this type of beverage and the discovery of fermentation are traditionally attributed, by explication from biblical sources, to Noah. The phrase has been used in both fictional and nonfictional literature.
Teetotalism is the practice or promotion of total personal abstinence from the consumption of alcohol, specifically in alcoholic drinks. A person who practices teetotalism is called a teetotaler (US) or teetotaller (UK), or said to be teetotal. Globally, almost half of adults do not drink alcohol. A number of temperance organisations have been founded in order to promote teetotalism and provide spaces for non-drinkers to socialise.
Alcohol in Indonesia refers to the alcohol industry, alcohol consumption and laws related to alcohol in the South East Asian country of Indonesia. Indonesia is a Muslim majority country, yet it is also a pluralist, democratic and secular nation. These social and demographic conditions led to Islamic parties and pressure groups pushing the government to restrict alcohol consumption and trade, while the government carefully considers the rights of non-Muslims and consenting adults to consume alcohol, and estimates the possible alcohol ban effects on Indonesian tourism and the economy.
Khamr is an Arabic word for wine or intoxicant. It is variously defined as alcoholic beverages, wine or liquor.
References
Notes
↑ Lewis & deAngelis (2016), pp.73–77: "The Tantric Buddhist traditions have been given several labels, but there is no single label that is accepted by all of these traditions. [...] It is important to note the use of this term in a plural form. Tantric or esoteric Buddhist traditions are multiple and also originated as multiple, distinct traditions of both text and practice."
↑ Jesus Christ. "Matthew 26:29;Mark 14:25;Luke 22:18". Archived from the original on 2014-05-04. Retrieved 2024-03-31. I tell you, I will not drink from this fruit of the wine from now on until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom.
↑ F. L. Cross and E. A. Livingstone, ed. (2005). "Wine". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3rded.). Oxford University Press, USA. p.1767. ISBN978-0-19-280290-3. [W]ine has traditionally been held to be one of the essential materials for a valid Eucharist, though some have argued that unfermented grape-juice fulfils the Dominical [that is, Jesus'] command.
↑ Dunkle, William Frederick; Quillian, Joseph D. (1970). Companion to The Book of Worship. Abingdon Press. p.61. ISBN978-0-687-09258-1. The pure, unfermented juice of the grape shall be used. The "fair white linen cloth" is merely a table covering that is appropriate for this central sacrament of the church.
↑ Martin, Scott C. (16 December 2014). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Alcohol: Social, Cultural, and Historical Perspectives. SAGE Publications. p.359. ISBN978-1-4833-3108-9.
↑ Rollins, Christin Eleanor (2005). Have You Heard The Tramping of the New Crusade?: Organizational Survival and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. University of Georgia. p.52.
↑ Ganguli, Kisari Mohan (1883). The Mahabharata. Calcutta: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. ISBN81-215-0593-3. Archived from the original on 2021-08-12. Retrieved 2021-08-12.
↑ Genesis 14:18, Malchizedek, the king of Salem, greeted and blessed Abraham with bread and wine.
↑ Genesis 27:25, Isaac partakes of bread and wine prior to confering his blessing on Jacob.
↑ On tithing one tenth of one's animals and produce, the tithe is to be consumed in Jerusalem, should a person be unable to transport the tithes themselves to Jerusalem, he is instructed to utilize the proceeds from the sale of the tithe items on food and drink items – including wine – that he is to consume in a festive meal Jerusalem. One can thus utilize these proceeds "for whatever you wish — oxen, sheep, wine, strong drink, or whatever you desire. And you shall eat there in the presence of the Lord your God, you and your household rejoicing together," Deuteronomy 14:26.
↑ A meal offering consisting of flour and oil, and a wine libation accompany certain sacrifices, verses 3–5 in Numbers 28, et al.
↑ Shulchan Arukh, Orach Chaim 272:2: "[Unfermented] wine [directly] from the wine press may be used for Kiddush. [Indeed,] a person may squeeze a cluster of grapes and recite Kiddush over [its juice]."
↑ Håkansson, Carina (2010). In search of Dionysos: reassessing a Dionysian context in early Rome. Gothenburg studies in history. Göteborg: University of Gothenburg: Distribution, Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. pp.72, 140. ISBN978-91-7346-681-3.
1 2 3 Francis, L. J.; Fearn, M.; Lewis, C. A. (2005). "The Impact of Personality and Religion on Attitudes toward Alcohol among 16–18 year olds in Northern Ireland". Journal of Religion and Health. 44 (3): 267–289. doi:10.1007/s10943-005-5464-z. JSTOR27512870. S2CID22015101.
1 2 Ford, J.; Kadushin, C. (2002). "Between Sacral Belief and Moral Community: A Multidimensional Approach to the Relationship between Religion and Alcohol among Whites and Blacks". Sociological Forum. 17 (2): 255–279. doi:10.1023/A:1016089229972. JSTOR3070326. S2CID141835011.
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