Yoga (philosophy)

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Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, [1] [2] though it is only at the end of the first millennium CE that Yoga is mentioned as a separate school of thought in Indian texts, distinct from Samkhya. [3] [4] [web 1] Ancient, medieval and most modern literature often refers to Yoga-philosophy simply as Yoga . [1] [5] A systematic collection of ideas of Yoga is found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali , [6] [7] a key text of Yoga [web 1] which has influenced all other schools of Indian philosophy. [8] [9]

Contents

The metaphysics of Yoga is Samkhya's dualism, [web 1] in which the universe is conceptualized as composed of two realities: Puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and Prakṛti (nature). Jiva (a living being) is considered as a state in which puruṣa is bonded to Prakṛti in some form, in various permutations and combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. [10] During the state of imbalance or ignorance, one or more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage. The end of this bondage is called liberation, or mokṣa , by both the Yoga and Samkhya schools of Hinduism, [11] and can be attained by insight and self-restraint. [12] [web 1]

The ethical theory of Yoga-philosophy is based on Yamas and Niyama, as well as elements of the Guṇa theory of Samkhya. [web 1] The epistemology of Yoga-philosophy, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six Pramanas as the means of gaining reliable knowledge. [13] These include Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference) and Sabda (Āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources). [14] [15] Yoga-philosophy differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by incorporating the concept of a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god" (Ishvara). [16] [17] [18]

History

Bronze figure of a Kashmiri in Meditation by Malvina Hoffman (1885-1966). The yoga posture shown is siddhasana. Bronze figure of Kashmiri in Meditation by Malvina Hoffman Wellcome M0005215.jpg
Bronze figure of a Kashmiri in Meditation by Malvina Hoffman (1885–1966). The yoga posture shown is siddhasana.

Yoga-practice

The origins of yoga-practice are unclear, but seems to have developed in ascetic milieus in the first millennium BCE. Some of its earliest discussions and of proto-Samkhya ideas are found in 1st millennium BCE Indian texts such as the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the Maitri Upanishad. [19]

The root of the word "Yoga" is found in hymn 5.81.1 of the Rig Veda, a dedication to rising Sun-god in the morning (Savitri), interpreted as "yoke" or "yogically control". [20]

युञ्जते मन उत युञ्जते धियो विप्रा विप्रस्य बृहतो विपश्चितः (…) [21]

Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically [युञ्जते, [yunjante] control their minds and their intelligence... (…) [20]

— Rigveda 5.81.1

The Rig Veda, however, does not describe Yoga philosophy with the same meaning or context as in medieval or modern times. Early references to practices that later became part of Yoga-philosophy, are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the oldest Upanishad. Gavin Flood translates it as, "...having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (atman), within oneself." The practice of pranayama (consciously regulating breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), and the practice of pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800–700 BCE). [22] [23]

The Katha Upanishad, dated to be from about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, in verses 2.6.6 through 2.6.13 recommends a path to Self-knowledge akin to Samkhya, and calls this path Yoga. [24]

यदा पञ्चावतिष्ठन्ते ज्ञानानि मनसा सह ।
बुद्धिश्च न विचेष्टते तामाहुः परमां गतिम् ॥ १० ॥
तां योगमिति मन्यन्ते स्थिरामिन्द्रियधारणाम् ।
अप्रमत्तस्तदा भवति योगो हि प्रभवाप्ययौ ॥ ११ ॥ [25]

Only when Manas (mind) with thoughts and the five senses stand still,
and when Buddhi (intellect, power to reason) does not waver, that they call the highest path.
That is what one calls Yoga, the stillness of the senses, concentration of the mind,
It is not thoughtless heedless sluggishness, Yoga is creation and dissolution.

— Katha Upanishad, 2.6.10–11 [26] [27]

Yoga-practice is also mentioned in foundational texts of other orthodox schools such as the Vaisesikha Sutras, Nyaya Sutras and Brahma Sutras.

Separate darsana

Yoga as a separate school of thought is mentioned in Indian texts from the end of the 1st millennium CE. [3] The systematic collection of ideas of the Yoga school of Hinduism is found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. After its circulation in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, many Indian scholars reviewed it, then published their Bhāṣya (notes and commentary) on it, which together form a canon of texts called the Pātañjalayogaśāstra ("The Treatise on Yoga of Patañjali"). [6] [7] Yoga as a separate school of philosophy has been included as one of the six orthodox schools in medieval era Indian texts; [4] the other schools are Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta. [28] According to Bryant,

Sāṁkhya and Yoga should not be considered different schools until a very late date: the first reference to Yoga itself as a distinct school seems to be in the writings of Śaṅkara in the 9th century C.E. [web 1]

There are numerous parallels in the concepts in the Samkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga and the Abhidharma schools of thought, particularly from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century AD, notes Larson. [19] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of these three traditions. From the Samkhya school of Hinduism, the Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, as well its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge. [19] From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of nirodhasamadhi, suggests Larson, the Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness, but unlike Buddhism, which believes that there is no fixed self, Yoga is physicalist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul. [19] The third concept that the Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of isolation, meditation and introspection. [19]

Philosophy

Yoga-philosophy is Samkhya. In both, the foundational concepts include two realities: Purusha and Prakriti. [28] The Purusha is defined as that reality which is pure consciousness and is devoid of thoughts or qualities. The Prakriti is the empirical, phenomenal reality which includes matter and also mind, sensory organs and the sense of identity (self, soul). [28] A living being is held in both schools to be the union of matter and mind. The Yoga school differs from the Samkhya school in its views on the ontology of Purusha, on axiology and on soteriology. [29] [30]

Metaphysics

The metaphysics of Yoga-Samkhya is a form of dualism. It considers consciousness and matter, self/soul and body as two different realities. [31]

The Samkhya-Yoga system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two "irreducible, innate and independent realities: Purusha and Prakriti. While the Prakriti is a single entity, the Samkhya-Yoga schools admit a plurality of the Puruṣas in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the final source of the world of objects. The Puruṣa is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the Prakriti is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya-Yoga believes that the Puruṣa cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. This metaphysics is a pluralistic spiritualism, a form of realism built on the foundation of dualism. [32]

Yoga-philosophy adopts the theory of Guṇa from Samkhya. [web 1] Guṇas theory states that three gunas (innate tendency, attributes) are present in different proportions in all beings, and these three are sattva guna (goodness, constructive, harmonious), rajas guna (passion, active, confused), and tamas guna (darkness, destructive, chaotic). [33] [34] These three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion of these three gunas. [web 1] When sattva guna predominates an individual, the qualities of lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmonious, and peacefulness manifest themselves; when rajas is predominant, attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas predominates in an individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive behavior, lethargy, and suffering manifests. The guṇas theory underpins the philosophy of mind in Yoga school of Hinduism. [web 1]

The early scholars of Yoga philosophy, posit that the Puruṣa (consciousness) by its nature is sattva (constructive), while Prakriti (matter) by its nature is tamas (chaotic). [web 1] They further posit that individuals at birth have buddhi (intelligence, sattvic). As life progresses and churns this buddhi, it creates asmita or ahamkara (ego, rajasic). When ego in turn is churned by life, manas (temper, mood, tamasic) is produced. Together, buddhi, ahamkara and manas interact and constitute citta (mind) in Yoga school of Hinduism. [web 1] Unrestrained modification of citta causes suffering. A way of life that empowers one to become ever more aware of one's consciousness and spirituality innate in buddhi, is the path to one's highest potential and a more serene, content, liberated life. Patanjali's Yoga sutra begins, in verse 2 of Book 1, by defining Yoga as "restraining the Citta from Vrittis." [35]

Soteriology

The fusion of Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi is Sanyama - the path to Moksha or Kaivalya in Yoga school. Lotus position.svg
The fusion of Dharana , Dhyana and Samadhi is Sanyama – the path to Moksha or Kaivalya in Yoga school.

Yoga school of Hinduism holds that ignorance is the cause of suffering and saṁsāra. [web 1] Liberation, like many other schools, is removal of ignorance, which is achieved through discriminative discernment, knowledge and self-awareness. The Yoga Sūtras is Yoga school's treatise on how to accomplish this. [web 1] Samādhi is the state where ecstatic awareness develops, state Yoga scholars, and this is how one starts the process of becoming aware of Purusa and true Self. It further claims that this awareness is eternal, and once this awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware; this is moksha, the soteriological goal in Hinduism. [web 1]

Book 3 of Patanjali's Yogasutra is dedicated to soteriological aspects of yoga philosophy. Patanjali begins by stating that all limbs of yoga are necessary foundation to reaching the state of self-awareness, freedom and liberation. He refers to the three last limbs of yoga as sanyama, in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the technology for "discerning principle" and mastery of citta and self-knowledge. [36] [37] In verse III.12, the Yogasutras state that this discerning principle then empowers one to perfect sant (tranquility) and udita (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness. This leads to one's ability to discern the difference between sabda (word), artha (meaning) and pratyaya (understanding), and this ability empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all living beings. [38] [39] Once a yogi reaches this state of sanyama, it leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms and kaivalya, the soteriological goal of the yogi. [38]

The benefits of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism is then summarized in verses III.46 to III.55 of Yogasutras, stating that the first five limbs leads to bodily perfections such as beauty, loveliness, strength and toughness; while the last three limbs through sanyama leads to mind and psychological perfections of perceptiveness, one's nature, mastery over egoism, discriminative knowledge of purity, self and soul. [40] [41] This knowledge once reached is irreversible, states Yogasutra's Book IV.

Ethical rules

Ethical rules in the texts of Yoga school of Hindu philosophy include both a theory of values through the observances of positive values and avoidance of negative, as well as an aesthetic theory on bliss from intrinsic and extrinsic perspectives. [42] [43] The values to be observed are called Niyamas, while those to be avoided are referred in the Yamas in Yoga philosophy.

Over sixty different ancient and medieval era texts of Yoga philosophy discuss Yamas and Niyamas. [44] [45] The specific theory and list of values varies between the texts, however, Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Svādhyāya, Kșhamā, and Dayā are among the predominantly discussed ethical concepts by majority of these texts. [44]

The five yamas listed by Patañjali in Yogasūtra 2.30 are: [46]

  1. Ahiṃsā (अहिंसा): Nonviolence, non-harming other living beings [47]
  2. Satya (सत्य): truthfulness, non-falsehood [47] [48]
  3. Asteya (अस्तेय): non-stealing [47]
  4. Brahmacarya (ब्रह्मचर्य): celibacy, non-cheating on one's partner [48]
  5. Aparigraha (अपरिग्रहः): non-avarice, [47] non-possessiveness [48]

Patanjali, in Book 2, explains how and why each of the above self restraints help in the personal growth of an individual. For example, in verse II.35, Patanjali states that the virtue of nonviolence and non-injury to others (Ahimsa) leads to the abandonment of enmity, a state that leads the yogi to the perfection of inner and outer amity with everyone, everything. [49] [50] Other texts of the Yoga school of Hinduism include Kṣamā (क्षमा, forgiveness), [51] Dhṛti (धृति, fortitude, non-giving up in adversity), Dayā (दया, compassion), [51] Ārjava (आर्जव, non-hypocrisy) [52] and Mitāhāra (मितहार, measured diet). [53]

The Niyamas part of theory of values in the Yoga school include virtuous habits, behaviors and observances. [54] [55] The Yogasutra lists the niyamas as: [56]

  1. Śauca: purity, clearness of mind, speech and body [57]
  2. Santoṣa: contentment, acceptance of others, acceptance of one's circumstances as they are in order to get past or change them, optimism for self [58]
  3. Tapas: persistence, perseverance, austerity [59] [60]
  4. Svādhyāya: study of Vedas (see Sabda in epistemology section), study of self, self-reflection, introspection of self's thoughts, speeches and actions [60] [61]
  5. Īśvarapraṇidhāna: contemplation of the Ishvara (God/Supreme Being, Brahman, True Self, Unchanging Reality) [58] [62]

As with Yamas, Patanjali explains how and why each of the above Niyamas help in the personal growth of an individual. For example, in verse II.42, Patanjali states that the virtue of contentment and acceptance of others as they are (Santoṣa) leads to the state where inner sources of joy matter most, and the craving for external sources of pleasant ceases. [63] Other texts of the Yoga school expanded the list of values under Niyamas, to include behaviors such as Āstika (आस्तिक, belief in personal God, faith in Self, conviction that there is knowledge in Vedas/Upanishads), Dāna (दान , charity, sharing with others), [64] Hrī (ह्री, remorse and acceptance of one's past/mistakes/ignorance, modesty) [65] Mati (मति, think and reflect, reconcile conflicting ideas) [66] and Vrata (व्रत, resolutions and vows, fast, pious observances). [67] [68] [69]

Epistemology

The Yoga school considers perception, inference and reliable testimony as three reliable means to knowledge. 3 Pramana Epistemology Samkhya Yoga Hindu schools.svg
The Yoga school considers perception, inference and reliable testimony as three reliable means to knowledge.

Yoga school, like Samkhya school, considers Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam (direct sense perception), Anumāna (inference), and Śabda or Āptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid means of knowledge or Pramana . [14] Unlike few other schools of Hinduism such as Advaita Vedanta, Yoga did not adopt the following three Pramanas : Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, deriving from circumstances) or Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof). [15]

God in Yoga school of Hinduism

Yoga philosophy allows the concept of God, unlike the closely related Samkhya school of Hinduism which is non-theistic. [29] Hindu scholars such as the 8th century Adi Sankara, as well many modern academic scholars describe the Yoga school as "Samkya school with God." [2] [17] [30]

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali use the term Isvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45. Ever since the Sutras' release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is Isvara. These commentaries range from defining Isvara as a "personal god" to a "special self" to "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual". [17] [84] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a "transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation". [85]

Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa)", [86]

Sanskrit: क्लेश कर्म विपाकाशयैःपरामृष्टः पुरुषविशेष ईश्वरः ॥२४॥
– Yoga Sutras I.24

This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism adds the characteristics of Isvara as that special Self which is unaffected (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships (क्लेश, klesha), one's circumstances created by the past or by one's current actions (कर्म, karma), one's life fruits (विपाक, vipâka), and one's psychological dispositions or intentions (आशय, ashaya). [87] [88]

Text sources

The most studied ancient and medieval era texts of the Yoga school of philosophy include those by Patanjali, Bhaskara, Haribhadra (Jain scholar), Bhoja, and Hemachandra. [web 1] [89]

References to the teachings of the Yoga school of Hinduism abound in ancient Indian texts of other orthodox schools of Hinduism, for example, verse 5.2.17 [90] of Vaisheshika Sutra by Kanada, belonging to the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism and dated to be from the 1st millennium BCE, [91] states [92]

Pleasure and pain results from contact of soul, sense, mind and object. Non-origination of that follows when the mind becomes steady in the soul. After it, there is non-existence of pain in the embodied soul. This is that Yoga.

— Vaiśeṣika Sūtra 5.2.15–5.2.16, [92]

The Nyāya Sūtras by Akshapada variously dated to be from 4th to 2nd century BCE, [91] and belonging to the Nyaya school of Hinduism, in chapter 4.2 discusses the importance of Yoga as follows, [3]

We are instructed to practice meditation in such places as a forest, a cave or a sand-bank. Such possibilities [the opponent claims] may occur even in release. It is, we reply, not so, because knowledge must spring up only in a body already in the state of formation. And there is absence of a body in our release. For that purpose, there should be a purifying of our soul by abstinence from evil, and observance of certain virtues, as well as by following the spiritual injunctions gleaned from Yoga. To secure release [moksha], it is necessary to study and follow this treatise on knowledge [Yoga], as well as to hold discussions with those learned in that treatise.

— Nyaya Sūtra 4.2.42–4.2.47, [93]

The Brahma Sutras by Badarayana, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE, [94] while the original version might be ancient and composed between 500 BCE and 200 BCE, [95] [91] belonging to the Vedanta school of Hinduism, in chapter 2 assumes the existence of a text called Yoga Smriti. Scholars contest whether this text was a precursor or the same as Patanjali's Yogasutra, but either premise is uncertain. [3] The verses of Brahma Sutras assert that dualism of the prevailing Yoga philosophy is refuted, as the value of Yoga is as a means to realization of the Self, not in propositions about Self that is in conflict with the Vedic texts. Radhakrishnan translates the text as follows,

If it is said that there will result the defect of not allowing room for certain Smritis, we say not so, because there will result the defect of not allowing room for some other smritis [further knowledge], and on account of the non-perception of others. Thereby [pradhāna theory of] the Yoga Smriti is refuted.

— Brahma Sūtra 2.1.1–2.1.3, [96] [97]

The Yoga Vasistha is a syncretic text on Yoga philosophy, variously dated to be from 6th- to 14th-century CE. [98] It is structured as a dialogue between sage Vasistha of the Vedic era and the philosopher-king Rama of the Hindu epic Ramayana . [99] The text synthesizes elements of Vedanta, Jainism, Yoga, Samkhya, Saiva Siddhanta and Mahayana Buddhism. [99] Among other things, the text discusses Yoga philosophy in its various chapters. In section 6.1, Yoga Vasistha introduces Yoga as follows, [100]

Yoga is the utter transcendence of the mind and is of two types. Self-knowledge is one type, another is the restraint of the life-force of self limitations and psychological conditioning. Yoga has come to mean only the latter, yet both the methods lead to the same result. To some, Self-knowledge through inquiry is difficult, to others Yoga is difficult. But my conviction is that the path of inquiry is easy for all, because Self-knowledge is the ever-present truth. I shall now describe to you the method of Yoga.

— Vasistha to Rama, Yoga Vasistha 6.1.12–13, [100]

See also

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The Mantrika Upanishad is a minor Upanishad of Hinduism. The Sanskrit text is one of the 22 Samanya Upanishads, is part of the Vedanta and Yoga schools of Hindu philosophy literature, and is one of 19 Upanishads attached to the Shukla Yajurveda. In the Muktika canon, narrated by Rama to Hanuman, it is listed at number 32 in the anthology of 108 Upanishads.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ashtanga (eight limbs of yoga)</span> Patanjalis classification of classical yoga

Ashtanga yoga is Patanjali's classification of classical yoga, as set out in his Yoga Sutras. He defined the eight limbs as yamas (abstinences), niyama (observances), asana (posture), pranayama (breathing), pratyahara (withdrawal), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation) and samadhi (absorption).

References

  1. 1 2 Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   978-8120832329, pages 100-101, 333-340
  2. 1 2 Maurice Phillips (Published as Max Muller collection), The Evolution of Hinduism, Origin and Growth of Religion , p. 8, at Google Books, PhD. Thesis awarded by University of Berne, Switzerland, page 8
  3. 1 2 3 4 Whicher 1999, p. 320.
  4. 1 2 David Lawrence (2014), in The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN   978-1-4725-1151-5, pages 137-150
  5. ↑ Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN   978-0-415-64887-5, pages 43-46 and Introduction chapter
  6. 1 2 Maas 2006.
  7. 1 2 Larson, p. 21–22.
  8. ↑ Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN   978-0-415-64887-5, pages 20-29
  9. ↑ Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al), Ashgate, ISBN   978-0-7546-3301-3, pages 149-158
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  11. ↑ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   978-8120805033, pages 36-47
  12. ↑ Yoga Vasistha 6.1.12-13
  13. ↑ John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN   978-0-7914-3067-5, page 238
  14. 1 2 3 Larson 1998 , p. 9
  15. 1 2 3
    • Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN   978-0-8153-3611-2, pages 245-248;
    • John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN   978-0-7914-3067-5, page 238
  16. ↑ Mikel Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN   978-0-415-64887-5, page 39-41
  17. 1 2 3 Lloyd Pflueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   978-8120832329, pages 38-39
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  19. 1 2 3 4 5 Larson, pp. 43-45
  20. 1 2 Burley, Mikel (2000). Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice . Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p.  25. ISBN   978-8120817067. Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice.
  21. ↑ Sanskrit: '
    Source: Rigveda Book 5, Chapter 81 Wikisource
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    GN Jha: Chandogya Upanishad VIII.15, page 488
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  32. ↑ Sharma 1997, pp. 149–68.
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  35. ↑ Vivekanada, p. 115.
  36. ↑ The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa – Book 3 GN Jha (Translator); Harvard University Archives, pages 94-95
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  42. ↑ Robert S. Hartman (2002), The Knowledge of Good: Critique of Axiological Reason, Rodopi, ISBN   978-9042012202, pages 224-225
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  50. ↑ Jan E. M. Houben and Karel Rijk van Kooij (1999), Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History, Brill Academic, ISBN   978-9004113442, page 5
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  62. ↑ Īśvara + praṇidhāna, Īśvara and praṇidhāna
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  68. ↑ Mikel Burley (2000), Haṭha-Yoga: Its Context, Theory, and Practice, Motilal Banarsidas, ISBN   978-8120817067, pages 190-191
  69. ↑ Hartmut Scharfe, Handbook of Oriental Studies – Education in Ancient India, Brill, ISBN   978-9004125568, pages 217-222
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  74. ↑ Karl Potter (1977), Meaning and Truth, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1995 by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   81-208-0309-4, pages 170-172
  75. ↑ W Halbfass (1991), Tradition and Reflection, State University of New York Press, ISBN   0-7914-0362-9, page 26-27
  76. ↑ Carvaka school is the exception
  77. 1 2 James Lochtefeld, "Anumana" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing. ISBN   0-8239-2287-1, page 46-47
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    • Hariharānanda Āraṇya (2007), Eternally Liberated Isvara and Purusa Principle, in Divine Hymns with Supreme Devotional Aphorisms, Kapil Math Press, Kolkata, pages 126-129
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  86. ↑
  87. ↑ aparAmRSTa, kleza, karma, vipaka and ashaya; Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
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  89. ↑ CK Chapelle (2003), Reconciling Yogas, State University of New York Press, ISBN   978-0-7914-5900-3, pages 12-15, 39-48
  90. ↑ This verse appears as 6.1 in some manuscripts of Vaiseisika Darsana
  91. 1 2 3 Michael Brannigan (2009), Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN   978-0-7391-3846-5, page 7
  92. 1 2 Original Sanskrit and Translation: The Vaisheshika Sutra of Kanada with the Commentary of Sankara Misra BD Basu (Translator), The Sacred Books of the Hindus, Volume 6, University of Toronto Archives; Modern translation: Johannes Bronkhorst (2000), The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   978-8120811140, page 64
  93. ↑ Original Sanskrit and Translation: The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama SC Vidyabhusana (Translator), The Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, University of Toronto Archives
  94. ↑ Hajime Nakamura (1989). A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy: Part 1. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 436. ISBN   81-208-0651-4., Quote: "...we can take it that 400-450 is the period during which the Brahma Sūtras was compiled in its extant form."
  95. ↑ Oliver Leaman (1999), Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN   978-0-415-17363-6, page xiv
  96. ↑ Brahma Sutra Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (Translator, 1960), London: George Allen, pages 333-335
  97. ↑ For a more recent translation of the same verse, see Jan E. M. Houben and Karel Rijk van Kooij (1999), Violence Denied, Brill Academic, ISBN   978-9004113442, page 149
  98. ↑ S Venkatesananda (Author) and CK Chapelle (Editor, 1985), The Concise Yoga Vasistha, State University of New York Press, ISBN   978-0-87395-954-4, page x
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  100. 1 2 S Venkatesananda (Author) and CK Chapelle (Editor, 1985), The Concise Yoga Vasistha, State University of New York Press, ISBN   978-0-87395-954-4, pages 275, also 239-246, 272-277

Sources

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Websources
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali IEP

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