Modern yoga gurus

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Maharishi Mahesh Yogi introduced The Beatles, and the West, to gurus, mantras, and meditation in the late 1960s. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1st Sept 1967 in Amsterdam by Merk Ben from Nationaal Archief).jpg
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi introduced The Beatles, and the West, to gurus, mantras, and meditation in the late 1960s.

Modern yoga gurus are people widely acknowledged to be gurus of modern yoga in any of its forms, whether religious or not. The role implies being well-known and having a large following; in contrast to the old guru-shishya tradition, the modern guru-follower relationship is not secretive, not exclusive, and does not necessarily involve a tradition. Many such gurus, but not all, teach a form of yoga as exercise; others teach forms which are more devotional or meditational; many teach a combination. Some have been affected by scandals of various kinds.

Contents

Guru-shishya tradition

The guru-shishya tradition involved a long-term, one-to-one relationship between master and pupil. Watercolour, Punjab Hills, India, 1740 Guru and DiscipleI.jpg
The guru–shishya tradition involved a long-term, one-to-one relationship between master and pupil. Watercolour, Punjab Hills, India, 1740

Before the creation of modern yoga, hatha yoga was practised in secret by solitary, ascetic yogins, learning the tradition as a long-term pupil or shishya apprenticed to their master or guru. [4] [5] [6] [7] The ancient relationship was the primary means by which spirituality was expressed in India. [8] Traditional yoga was often exclusive and secretive: the shishya submitted to and obeyed the guru, understanding that lengthy initiation and training under the guru was essential for progress. [3] So strong was the guru-shishya relationship that Vivekananda stated that "The guru must be worshipped as God. He is God, he is nothing less than that". [8]

Transformed role

The role of the guru in the modern world is radically transformed. Globalisation has extended the guru's reach into environments where they may be a stranger, and where the religion, purpose, and status of the guru is poorly understood. Modern yoga practices are often open to everyone, without any sort of initiation into any organisation or doctrine. The modern guru Jaggi Vasudev explicitly rejected "all that traditional whatever"; [3] all the same, some yoga traditions still emphasise and respect a teacher's lineage (parampara). [3] For example, Gurumayi's Siddha Yoga pays careful attention to her predecessors, Muktananda and Bhagawan Nityananda. [9] Another major change was introduced by Vivekananda; his Ramakrishna Mission set the example of public service in education and medicine, something now practised by many other Indian religious movements. These religions thus shifted from a focus on personal salvation to public altruism. [8]

Yogendra, an acknowledged pioneer of modern yoga, rejected the traditional guru role in favour of something more modern. Shri Yogendra.jpg
Yogendra, an acknowledged pioneer of modern yoga, rejected the traditional guru role in favour of something more modern.

A further radical shift was from spiritual to physical in yoga as exercise, as pioneered by Yogendra, Kuvalayananda, and Krishnamacharya. [12] The transformed role of the guru can be seen in the case of one of these pioneers, [10] Yogendra, who explicitly rejected the role of traditional guru for a single pupil or shishya. [11] The physical context, too, is transformed along with the nature of the teacher's authority; yoga as exercise is often taught in an urban yoga studio, where the instructor's yoga teacher training stands in for the old guru-shishya relationship. [3] The trend away from authority is continued in post-lineage yoga, which is practised outside any major school or guru's lineage. [13] [14]

The concept of the guru, along with mantra and meditation, reached the West in the 1960s with The Beatles' trip to India, for a Transcendental Meditation training course at Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's ashram in Rishikesh. [1] [2] Modern gurus since then have used the divine status of the traditional guru to claim that they were gods or goddesses. Some asserted they were avatars, earthly incarnations of a god, fulfilling the prophecy in the Bhagavad Gita that Vishnu would take on earthly form when the world was threatened by evil. [8]

Abuse

The potential for abuse in the transformed guru-follower relationship is large, and there have been multiple instances of apparent or proven sexual, mental, and emotional abuse by gurus. [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] Anthony Storr has documented, for example, the excesses of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh; [20] Joel Kramer and Diana Alstad have examined the betrayal of trust that is involved. [21] Swami Vivekananda said early in the modern era that there are many incompetent gurus, and that a true guru should understand the spirit of the scriptures, have a pure character and be free from sin, and should be selfless, without desire for money and fame. [22] Following the downfalls of several gurus accused of misconduct, practitioners have publicly debated whether gurus are still necessary. [23] As for how gurus can get away with abuse for so long, there is evidence both from research in psychology and from the recollections of former devotees like Daniel Shaw, once a senior member of staff in Gurumayi's Siddha Yoga organisation, that even if a guru is seen to be lying, devotees will ignore the matter and "keep on believing". [24]

Acknowledged gurus

Well-known gurus of modern yoga
GuruDatesGenderCountryLineage (guru)School
or order		Postures
(Asana)		Meditation
(Dhyana)		Devotion
(Bhakti)		Other
practices		Scandal
(alleged abuses)
Anandamayi Ma [25] [26] [27] 1896–1982FemaleIndia Self-realization NoYes
Sri Aurobindo [28] [29] 1872–1950MaleIndia Sri Aurobindo Ashram NoYes
Beryl Bender Birch [30] 1942–FemaleUS K. Pattabhi Jois Power Yoga YesNoNo
Yogi Bhajan [31] [32] 1929–2004MaleIndia Kundalini Yoga YesYes Guru Nanak Sexual [33] [34]
Bikram Choudhury [35] [25] [36] [18] 1944–MaleIndia Bikram Yoga YesNoNo Fixed sequence of postures, in heated room Sexual, assault, racism, homophobia [37] [38]
Amrit Desai [39] [40] [41] [42] 1932–MaleIndia Kripalvananda Kripalu Yoga [43] Yes Kundalini yoga, Hatha yoga [39] Sexual [44] [45] [40]
John Friend [36] [18] [46] 1959–MaleUS Anusara Yoga YesYesNoSexual [47] [48]
Gurmukh [49] [50] 1943–FemaleUS Yogi Bhajan Kundalini Yoga NoYes Yoga in pregnancy
Gurumayi Chidvilasananda [51] [52] 1955–FemaleIndia Muktananda Siddha Yoga NoYesYes Shaktipat, japa
B. K. S. Iyengar [35] [36] [53] [54] [55] [56] 1918–2014MaleIndia Krishnamacharya Iyengar Yoga YesNoNo Yoga props
Jaggi Vasudev [35] [54] [57] 1957–MaleIndia Malladihalli Raghavendra Isha Foundation YesYes"Inner Engineering", japa, pranayama
K. Pattabhi Jois [35] [53] [54] [58] [1] [59] 1915–2009MaleIndia Krishnamacharya Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga YesNoNo Vinyasas Sexual [60]
Krishnamacharya [35] [53] [54] [61] 1888–1989MaleIndia Vinyasa Krama Yoga YesNoNo Vinyasas
Kriyananda [62] [63] 1926–2013MaleUS Yogananda Ananda yoga NoYesYesCopyright disputes [64] Sexual [65] [66]
Kuvalayananda [54] 1883–1966MaleIndiaParamahamsa Madhavdas Kaivalyadhama Yes Ayurveda
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi [35] [53] [54] [59] 1918–2008MaleIndia Brahmananda Saraswati Transcendental Meditation NoYes
Meher Baba [25] 1894–1969MaleIndiaAvatar Meher Baba TrustNo Sufism
Dharma Mittra [67] 1939–MaleBrazilKailashanandaDharma Yoga CenterYes
Muktananda [68] [69] [70] 1908–1982MaleIndia Bhagawan Nityananda Siddha Yoga NoYes Shaktipat Sexual [71] [72]
Nirmala Srivastava
(Shri Mataji Nirmala Devi) [73] 		1923–2011FemaleIndia Sahaja Yoga NoYes Kundalini awakening
Swami Rama [54] 1925–1996MaleIndia Himalayan Institute NoYesSexual [74]
Ram Dass [75] [76] 1931–2019MaleUS Neem Karoli Baba NoYes Pranayama
Baba Ramdev [35] [67] [53] [77] 1965–MaleIndia Patanjali Yogpeeth YesYes Ayurveda, pranayama
Sivananda [35] [78] [53] [54] 1887–1963MaleIndia Divine Life Society NoYes
Sri Sri Ravi Shankar [35] [57] 1956–MaleIndia Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Art of Living Foundation YesYes Sudarshan Kriya, pranayama
Satchidananda Saraswati [79] [80] 1914–2002MaleIndia Sivananda Integral Yoga YesYesYes Pranayama, Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Japa Sexual [79] [81]
Sathya Sai Baba [82] [83] 1926–2011MaleIndia Sathya Sai Organization No
Shankarananda [84] [85] 1942–MaleUS Shiva Yoga NoYesSexual [84] [85]
Vishnudevananda Saraswati [86] [56] 1927–1993MaleIndia Sivananda Sivananda Yoga YesYes Pranayama, Sattvic diet Sexual [86]
Vivekananda [87] [88] 1863–1902MaleIndia Ramakrishna Vedanta NoYes
Paramahansa Yogananda [35] [25] [53] [54] 1893–1952MaleIndia Sri Yukteswar Giri Self-Realization Fellowship YesYesYes Kriya Yoga
Yogendra [10] [59] 1897–1989MaleIndia The Yoga Institute YesYes

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References

  1. 1 2 3 Shearer 2020, p. 211.
  2. 1 2 Goldberg 2010, p. 152.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Singleton & Goldberg 2014, pp. 4–8.
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  11. 1 2 Goldberg 2016, pp. 7–15.
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  16. ↑ Horton, Adrian (20 November 2019). "'He got away with it': how the founder of Bikram yoga built an empire on abuse". The Guardian .
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  18. 1 2 3 Park, Tosca (11 February 2015). "Modern Yoga: Turning a Blind Eye on Sexual Abuse Allegations?". Yoga Basics. Other yoga masters have also been involved in sexual abuse scandals with their students, notably, Kausthub Desikachar, Sai Baba, Swami Shyam, Swami Satchidananda, Swami Rama, Swami Muktananada, and Amrit Desai.
  19. ↑ Stuart, Gwynedd (15 July 2020). "Yogi Bhajan Turned an L.A. Yoga Studio into a Juggernaut, and Left Two Generations of Followers Reeling from Alleged Abuse". Los Angeles Magazine . Retrieved 26 February 2021.
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  21. ↑ Kramer & Alstad 1993, Gurus & Sexual Manipulation: The Betrayal of Trust.
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  79. 1 2 Landau, Meryl Davids (February 2012). "In Times of Scandal". Elephant Journal. Retrieved 17 August 2021. Here I was, eager to learn yogic principles like nonharming and truthfulness, while Swami Satchidananda, the guru at the head of this teaching center, was being accused of harming and lying aplenty. I don't know if the accusations were ever proven, but the disciple who claimed she'd had a longstanding, not-really-welcome sexual relationship with the supposedly celibate swami was pretty convincing
  80. ↑ Syman 2010, p. 261.
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