Science of yoga

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Kuvalayananda watching an experiment on oxygen consumption in yogic practice at his Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Centre, Lonavla, c. 1955 Kuvalayananda experiment on oxygen use in yogic practice.jpg
Kuvalayananda watching an experiment on oxygen consumption in yogic practice at his Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Centre, Lonavla, c. 1955

The science of yoga is the scientific basis of modern yoga as physical exercise in human sciences such as anatomy, physiology, and psychology. Yoga's effects are to some extent shared with other forms of exercise, [O 1] though it differs in the amount of stretching involved, and because of its frequent use of long holds and relaxation, in its ability to reduce stress. Yoga is here treated separately from meditation, which has effects of its own, though yoga and meditation are combined in some schools of yoga.

Contents

Yoga has been studied scientifically since the 19th-century physiology experiments of N. C. Paul. The early 20th-century pioneers Yogendra and Kuvalayananda both set up institutes to study yoga systematically.

Yoga helps to maintain bone strength, joint mobility, and joint stability. It improves posture, muscle strength, coordination, and confidence, in turn reducing the risk of injury and bone fracture. As it is generally slow and conducted with awareness, it may be safer than many other sports; but some postures such as headstand, shoulderstand, and lotus position have been reported as causes of injury.

Yoga is also used directly as therapy, especially for psychological conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder, but the evidence for this remains weak. Yoga has sometimes been marketed with pseudoscientific claims for specific benefits, when it may be no better than other forms of exercise in those cases; [O 1] and some claims for its effects on particular organs, such as that forward bends eject toxins from the liver, are entirely unfounded. Reviewers have noted the need for more high-quality studies of yoga's effects.

History

'World Conference on Scientific Yoga', 1970. From left: Swami Satchidananda, B.K.S. Iyengar, Amrit Desai, Kumar Swami, Dhirendra Brahmachari, and Dr B.I. Atreya 1970-World Conf on Scientific Yoga.jpg
'World Conference on Scientific Yoga', 1970. From left: Swami Satchidananda, B.K.S. Iyengar, Amrit Desai, Kumar Swami, Dhirendra Brahmachari, and Dr B.I. Atreya

In the 19th century, the Bengali physician N. C. Paul began the study of the physiology of yoga with his 1851 book Treatise on Yoga Philosophy, noting that yoga can raise carbon dioxide levels in the blood (hypercapnia). [2] [3] [4]

Early in the 20th century, two pioneers of yoga as exercise in India, Yogendra and Kuvalayananda, worked to make Haṭha yoga acceptable, seeking scientific evidence for the health benefits of yoga postures (asanas) and yoga breathing (pranayama). In 1918, Yogendra founded The Yoga Institute to carry out research on yoga, hoping that a gloss of science would make yoga more acceptable in the West. [P 1] [O 2] [5] Yogendra expressed his intentions in books such as his 1928 Yoga Asanas Simplified [6] and his 1931 Yoga Personal Hygiene. [7] In 1924, Kuvalayananda founded the Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Centre, combining asanas with gymnastics, and like Yogendra seeking a scientific and medical basis for yogic practices. [8] [9]

In 1937, the Yale physiologist K. T. Behanan published his book Yoga: A Scientific Evaluation, reporting that a form of pranayama, Ujjayi ("Victorious breath"), performed at the slow rate of 28 breaths in 22 minutes, could create a deeply relaxed state that he called "an extremely pleasant feeling of quietude", [10] accompanied by a marked slowing of mental performance on tests such as mental sums, recognising colours and solving simple puzzles. The science journalist William Broad notes that this finding contradicted the image of yoga as conferring special powers. [11] [10]

In 1970 Christopher Hills, his son John, and Kevin Kingsland organized the 'World Conference on Scientific Yoga' in New Delhi, bringing 50 Western scientists together with 800 of India's leading swamis, yogis and lamas to discuss their research and establish a network for the creation of a World Yoga University. [12]

Scope

Yoga as exercise is defined by Merriam-Webster as "a system of physical postures, breathing techniques, and sometimes meditation derived from [traditional] Yoga but often practiced independently especially in Western cultures to promote physical and emotional well-being". [O 3]

The science journalist William Broad notes that yoga has "wide health benefits", [13] and defines the scope of the science of yoga as to "better understand what yoga can do and better understand what yoga can be". [14] He distinguishes "the modern variety" which is his subject from the Haṭha yoga that formed "in medieval times". [14] [lower-alpha 1] Denise Rankin-Box, editor of Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice , one of several Elsevier journals that publish papers on the effects of yoga (among other matters), offers the definition "research addressing the impact of yoga on health and wellbeing." [O 5] Ann Swanson, an educator and yoga therapist, writes that "scientific principles and evidence have demystified so much of the practice" of yoga; [15] her book on the Science of Yoga is principally about the anatomy of yoga asanas, [16] with a chapter on the relationships of the body's systems (anatomy and physiology) to yoga. [17] Psychiatric researchers such as Michaela Pascoe have addressed the effect of yoga on measures of psychological stress and depression. [P 2] [P 3]

Broad notes the "diffuse nature of the existing science" [14] with pieces of the metaphorical jigsaw puzzle of scientific knowledge of what yoga actually achieves held in many laboratories around the world. The picture is, Broad writes, confused by the "predatory behaviour" [18] of commercial ventures intent upon promoting themselves; [18] but is being clarified by the American National Institutes of Health, which began funding scientific research into yoga in 1998, leading to reliable reports of studies of yoga's effects on different conditions. [19]

Physical effects

Skeleton and joints

Yoga flexes, extends and rotates the vertebral column, helping to prevent or manage back pain. Flexion arriere vertebre.jpg
Yoga flexes, extends and rotates the vertebral column, helping to prevent or manage back pain.

Yoga helps to keep bones and joints in a healthy state. [20] In particular, it helps to maintain bone strength; [21] it also helps to maintain both joint mobility (range of motion), and joint stability. [22] [23] It improves posture, muscular strength, coordination and confidence (reducing anxiety), all of which reduce the risk of injury and bone fracture, and which may therefore be helpful to people with conditions such as osteoporosis. [O 6] On the other hand, yoga, like any other physical activity, can result in injury; headstand (Sirsasana), shoulder stand (Sarvangasana), and lotus position (Padmasana) are the asanas most often reported as causes of injury. [P 5] Ann Swanson offers three reasons why yoga may be safer than many sports, namely that it is often slow; it encourages awareness in the moment; and it stresses doing no harm (ahimsa). [24] The American National Institutes of Health advise practising with a qualified instructor to reduce the chance of injury. [25]

Muscles

Any asana that is held for a period, like the arm-balancing Astavakrasana, builds muscle strength by isometric exercise. Astavakrasana.jpg
Any asana that is held for a period, like the arm-balancing Astavakrasana, builds muscle strength by isometric exercise.

Yoga involves both isotonic activity, the shortening of muscles under load, and (unlike many forms of exercise) also a substantial amount of isometric activity, holding still under load, as in any asana which is held for a period. Isometric exercise builds muscle strength. [26]

One of the applications of science to yoga is the provision of detailed knowledge of the anatomy of the skeletomuscular system, as it relates to yoga asanas, for yoga teachers and yoga therapists. [27] [28] [29]

Breathing

Pranayama, yoga breathing Tanumanasi kapalabhati (cropped).JPG
Pranayama, yoga breathing

Breathing and posture affect each other, especially through their effects on the diaphragm. [30] Breathing also affects the autonomic nervous system; quiet breathing slows the heart and reduces blood pressure. Together, these produce a feeling of calmness and relaxation. [31] One way to do this is used in one form of yoga breathing (pranayama): the exhalation is counted to be twice as long as the inhalation, say inhale to a count of 3 and exhale to a count of 6. [32]

Breathing can equally be used to energise the body. The pranayama method of bhastrika (bellows breath) and the satkarma purification of kapalabhati (skull polishing) both energise the body with vigorous abdominal breathing, using the diaphragm to make the abdomen move in and out. [33]

Broad notes the "myth" that yoga, and especially pranayama, increases the supply of oxygen to the body. He writes that instead, fast vigorous breathing as with bhastrika may indeed feel exhilarating, as B. K. S. Iyengar reported, but it lowers the level of carbon dioxide in the blood. This causes blood vessels in the brain to constrict, reducing the brain's uptake of oxygen, resulting in symptoms such as dizziness and fainting. On the other hand, slow pranayama can raise carbon dioxide levels, and increase the uptake of oxygen by the brain. [34]

Physiological effects

Fitness

Yoga can be used as exercise to help maintain physical fitness. A complete yoga session with asanas and pranayama provides on average a moderate workout. [lower-alpha 2] Surya Namaskar (the 12-asana Salute to the Sun sequence) ranged from light to vigorous exercise, depending on how it was performed. [lower-alpha 3] The average for a session of yoga practice without Surya Namaskar was light or moderate exercise. [lower-alpha 4] [P 6] [P 7]

Stress relief

A yoga class relaxing in Supta Baddha Konasana. There is evidence that yoga relieves stress by multiple mechanisms. YogaClass.jpg
A yoga class relaxing in Supta Baddha Konasana. There is evidence that yoga relieves stress by multiple mechanisms.

Yoga sessions often end (and sometimes also begin) with a period of relaxation in corpse pose, Shavasana. The activity levels of all the body's muscles, and the motor neurons (nerve cells) that activate them, is reduced as relaxation is practised, except for the diaphragm which is used in breathing; and the breathing rate reduces also. [35]

As therapy

There is strong scientific evidence that yoga is a safe and effective additional therapy for people with low back pain. [P 4] On its own, yoga is about as effective as other active treatments for back pain, and more effective at reducing pain and improving function than non-exercise treatments. [36]

Yoga is useful to some extent for psychological conditions such as stress and depression, [P 2] [P 3] but despite repeated attempts, little or no evidence for benefit for other specific medical conditions. Much of the research on the therapeutic use of yoga, including for depression, has been in the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality, suffering from small sample sizes, inadequate control and blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of bias. [P 9] [P 10] For example, study of trauma-sensitive yoga has been hampered by weak methodology. [P 11]

Pseudoscience

The neurologist and sceptic Steven Novella wrote in 2013 that "Yoga .. fits into a more general phenomenon of marketing a specific intervention as if it has specific benefits, when in fact it only has generic benefits" associated with physical exercise. [O 1] Novella points out that yoga also has a spiritual side, so claims made for it can mix science with "a liberal dose of pure pseudoscience and mysticism." [O 1] He illustrates this by quoting unfounded claims such as that a forward bend squeezes the pancreas and liver, ejecting toxins, and that stretching the lower back is calming because emotional stress accumulates in the lower back muscles. Novella states that "None of those specific claims is based in reality." [O 1]

Notes

  1. ↑ The LiveScience website similarly states "Modern-day science confirms that the practice also has tangible physical benefits to overall health benefits". [O 4]
  2. ↑ Measured at 3.3 ± 1.6 METs. [P 6]
  3. ↑ Larson-Meyer and Enette found a range of 2.9 (light exercise) to 7.4 (vigorous) METs. Curious about the wide range of METs in Surya Namaskar, repeated the study (Mody) which gave the highest value; using "transition jumps, and full pushups", he obtained "agreement" with 6.4 METs. [P 6]
  4. ↑ Asanas performed individually provide on average 2.2 ± 0.7 METs; pranayama types performed individually provide just 1.3 ± 0.3 METs; a combined class provided 2.9 ± 0.8 METs. [P 6]

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hatha yoga</span> Branch of yoga focusing on physical techniques

Hatha yoga is a branch of yoga that uses physical techniques to try to preserve and channel vital force or energy. The Sanskrit word हठ haṭha literally means "force", alluding to a system of physical techniques. Some hatha yoga style techniques can be traced back at least to the 1st-century CE, in texts such as the Hindu Sanskrit epics and Buddhism's Pali canon. The oldest dated text so far found to describe hatha yoga, the 11th-century Amṛtasiddhi, comes from a tantric Buddhist milieu. The oldest texts to use the terminology of hatha are also Vajrayana Buddhist. Hindu hatha yoga texts appear from the 11th century onward.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asana</span> Postures in hatha yoga and modern yoga practice

An āsana is a body posture, originally and still a general term for a sitting meditation pose, and later extended in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise, to any type of position, adding reclining, standing, inverted, twisting, and balancing poses. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali define "asana" as "[a position that] is steady and comfortable". Patanjali mentions the ability to sit for extended periods as one of the eight limbs of his system. Asanas are also called yoga poses or yoga postures in English.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pranayama</span> Practice of breath control in Yoga

Pranayama is the yogic practice of focusing on breath. In yoga, breath is associated with prana, thus, pranayama is a means to elevate the prana-shakti, or life energies. Pranayama is described in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Later in Hatha yoga texts, it meant the complete suspension of breathing. The pranayama practices in modern yoga as exercise are unlike those of the Hatha yoga tradition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yoga nidra</span> State of consciousness between waking and sleeping induced by a guided meditation

Yoga nidra or yogic sleep in modern usage is a state of consciousness between waking and sleeping, typically induced by a guided meditation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yoga as therapy</span> Yoga in the use of physical and mental therapy

Yoga as therapy is the use of yoga as exercise, consisting mainly of postures called asanas, as a gentle form of exercise and relaxation applied specifically with the intention of improving health. This form of yoga is widely practised in classes, and may involve meditation, imagery, breath work (pranayama) and calming music as well as postural yoga.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sivananda yoga</span> School of hatha yoga

Sivananda Yoga is a spiritual yoga system founded by Vishnudevananda; it includes the use of asanas but is not limited to them as in systems of yoga as exercise. He named this system, as well as the international Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres organization responsible for propagating its teachings, after his guru, Sivananda with the mission 'to spread the teachings of yoga and the message of world peace' which has since been refined to 'practice and teach the ancient yogic knowledge for health, peace, unity in diversity and self-realization.'

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siddhasana</span> Ancient seated meditation posture in hatha yoga

Siddhasana or Accomplished Pose is an ancient seated asana in hatha yoga and modern yoga as exercise suitable for meditation. The names Muktasana and Burmese position are sometimes given to the same pose, sometimes to an easier variant, Ardha Siddhasana. Svastikasana has each foot tucked as snugly as possible into the fold of the opposite knee.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shavasana</span> Relaxed reclining posture in hatha yoga

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gomukhasana</span> Seated posture in hatha yoga

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Swami Kuvalayananda</span>

Swami Kuvalayananda was a yoga guru, researcher, and educator primarily known for his pioneering research into the scientific foundations of yoga. He started research on yoga in 1920, and published the first journal specifically devoted to studying yoga, Yoga Mimamsa, in 1924. Most of his research took place at the Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Center at Lonavla which he founded in 1924. He has had a profound influence on the development of yoga as exercise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yogendra</span> Indian yoga guru and poet (1897–1989)

Manibhai Haribhai Desai (1897–1989), known as (Shri) Yogendra was an Indian yoga guru, author, poet, researcher and was one of the important figures in the modern revival and transformation of Hatha Yoga, both in India and United States. He was the founder of The Yoga Institute, the oldest organized yoga centre in the world, established in 1918. He is often referred as the Father of Modern Yoga Renaissance. He was one of the figures responsible for reviving the practice of asanas and making yoga accessible to people other than renunciates.

Trauma-sensitive yoga is yoga as exercise, adapted from 2002 onwards for work with individuals affected by psychological trauma. Its goal is to help trauma survivors to develop a greater sense of mind-body connection, to ease their physiological experiences of trauma, to gain a greater sense of ownership over their bodies, and to augment their overall well-being. However, a 2019 systematic review found that the studies to date were not sufficiently robustly designed to provide strong evidence of yoga's effectiveness as a therapy; it called for further research.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yoga as exercise</span> Physical activity consisting mainly of yoga poses

Yoga as exercise is a physical activity consisting mainly of postures, often connected by flowing sequences, sometimes accompanied by breathing exercises, and frequently ending with relaxation lying down or meditation. Yoga in this form has become familiar across the world, especially in the US and Europe. It is derived from medieval Haṭha yoga, which made use of similar postures, but it is generally simply called "yoga". Academics have given yoga as exercise a variety of names, including modern postural yoga and transnational anglophone yoga.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seetharaman Sundaram</span> Indian lawyer, yogi

Seetharaman Sundaram was a lawyer and pioneer of yoga as exercise, often known as Yogacharya Sundaram, and the first person to publish a handbook of yoga asanas in English, his 1928 Yogic Physical Culture. This was also the first yoga book to be illustrated with photographs. He travelled India with the bodybuilder K. V. Iyer, helping to popularise the new blend of hatha yoga and physical culture.

Early modern yoga was the form of yoga created and presented to the Western world by Madame Blavatsky, Swami Vivekananda and others in the late 19th century. It embodied the period's distaste for yoga postures (asanas) as practised by Nath yogins by not mentioning them. As such it differed markedly from the prevailing yoga as exercise developed in the 20th century by Yogendra, Kuvalayananda, and Krishnamacharya, which was predominantly physical, consisting mainly or entirely of asanas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yoga in the United States</span>

The history of yoga in the United States begins in the 19th century, with the philosophers Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau; Emerson's poem "Brahma" states the Hindu philosophy behind yoga. More widespread interest in yoga can be dated to the Hindu leader Vivekananda's visit from India in 1893; he presented yoga as a spiritual path without postures (asanas), very different from modern yoga as exercise. Two other early figures, however, the women's rights advocate Ida C. Craddock and the businessman and occultist Pierre Bernard, created their own interpretations of yoga, based on tantra and oriented to physical pleasure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Postural yoga in India</span>

Postural yoga began in India as a variant of traditional yoga, which was a mainly meditational practice; it has spread across the world and returned to the Indian subcontinent in different forms. The ancient Yoga Sutras of Patanjali mention yoga postures, asanas, only briefly, as meditation seats. Medieval Haṭha yoga made use of a small number of asanas alongside other techniques such as pranayama, shatkarmas, and mudras, but it was despised and almost extinct by the start of the 20th century. At that time, the revival of postural yoga was at first driven by Indian nationalism. Advocates such as Yogendra and Kuvalayananda made yoga acceptable in the 1920s, treating it as a medical subject. From the 1930s, the "father of modern yoga" Krishnamacharya developed a vigorous postural yoga, influenced by gymnastics, with transitions (vinyasas) that allowed one pose to flow into the next.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yoga using props</span> Use of objects to assist yoga postures

Props used in yoga include chairs, blocks, belts, mats, blankets, bolsters, and straps. They are used in postural yoga to assist with correct alignment in an asana, for ease in mindful yoga practice, to enable poses to be held for longer periods in Yin Yoga, where support may allow muscles to relax, and to enable people with movement restricted for any reason, such as stiffness, injury, or arthritis, to continue with their practice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yashtikasana</span> Meditation posture

Yashtikasana (Yastikasana) or Stick position is a beginner level yoga pose that is usually performed in preparation for more intermediate to advanced level asanas. In Sanskrit, "Yastik" means stick.

References

Book

  1. ↑ Alter 2004, pp. 81–100.
  2. ↑ Broad 2012, pp. 20ff.
  3. ↑ Singleton 2010, p. 52.
  4. ↑ Paul 1882.
  5. ↑ Shearer 2020, p. 251.
  6. ↑ Yogendra 1928.
  7. ↑ Singleton 2010, pp. 116–117.
  8. ↑ Alter 2004, p. 31.
  9. ↑ Goldberg 2016, pp. 100–141.
  10. 1 2 Broad 2012, pp. 83–85.
  11. ↑ Behanan 2002.
  12. ↑ "World Yoga Conference". The Times of India . 30 November 1970.
  13. ↑ Broad 2012, p. 54.
  14. 1 2 3 Broad 2012, p. 217.
  15. ↑ Swanson 2019, pp. 6–7.
  16. ↑ Swanson 2019, pp. 42–173.
  17. ↑ Swanson 2019, pp. 10–41.
  18. 1 2 Broad 2012, p. 218.
  19. ↑ Broad 2012, p. 219.
  20. ↑ Swanson 2019, p. 12.
  21. ↑ Swanson 2019, p. 118.
  22. ↑ Powers 2008, pp. 25, 176.
  23. ↑ Swanson 2019, p. 63.
  24. ↑ Swanson 2019, p. 202.
  25. ↑ "Yoga: What You Need To Know". National Institutes of Health. May 2019.
  26. 1 2 Coulter 2007, Chapter 1. Movement: Isotonic and Isometric Activity.
  27. ↑ Kaminoff & Matthews 2012.
  28. ↑ Long & Macivor 2009.
  29. ↑ Swanson 2019.
  30. ↑ Coulter 2007, Chapter 2. Breathing. How Breathing Affects Posture.
  31. ↑ Coulter 2007, Chapter 2. Breathing. How Breathing Affects The Autonomic Nervous System.
  32. ↑ Coulter 2007, Chapter 2. Breathing. 2:1 Breathing.
  33. ↑ Coulter 2007, Chapter 2. Breathing. The Bellows Breath and Kapalabhati.
  34. ↑ Broad 2012, pp. 85–89.
  35. ↑ Coulter 2007, Chapter 10. Relaxation and Meditation. The Corpse Posture.
  36. ↑ Anheyer, Dennis; Haller, Heidemarie; Lauche, Romy; Dobos, Gustav; Cramer, Holger (2022-04-01). "Yoga for treating low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Pain. 163 (4): e504–e517. doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002416. ISSN   1872-6623. PMID   34326296. S2CID   236516996.

Scientific papers

  1. ↑ Newcombe, Suzanne (2017). "The Revival of Yoga in Contemporary India" (PDF). Religion. 1. Oxford Research Encyclopedias. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.253. ISBN   978-0-19-934037-8.
  2. 1 2 Pascoe, Michaela C.; Bauer, Isabelle E. (1 September 2015). "A systematic review of randomised control trials on the effects of yoga on stress measures and mood". Journal of Psychiatric Research. 68: 270–282. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.07.013. PMID   26228429.
  3. 1 2 Cramer, Holger; Anheyer, Dennis; Lauche, Romy; Dobos, Gustav (2017). "A systematic review of yoga for major depressive disorder". Journal of Affective Disorders. 213: 70–77. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.02.006. hdl: 10453/79255 . ISSN   0165-0327. PMID   28192737.
  4. 1 2 Cramer, Holger; Lauche, Romy; Haller, Heidemarie; Dobos, Gustav (2013). "A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Yoga for Low Back Pain". The Clinical Journal of Pain. 29 (5): 450–460. doi:10.1097/AJP.0b013e31825e1492. PMID   23246998. S2CID   12547406.
  5. ↑ Acott, Ted S.; Cramer, Holger; Krucoff, Carol; Dobos, Gustav (2013). "Adverse Events Associated with Yoga: A Systematic Review of Published Case Reports and Case Series". PLOS ONE. 8 (10): e75515. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...875515C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075515 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3797727 . PMID   24146758.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Larson-Meyer, D. Enette (2016). "A Systematic Review of the Energy Cost and Metabolic Intensity of Yoga". Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 48 (8): 1558–1569. doi:10.1249/MSS.0000000000000922. ISSN   0195-9131. PMID   27433961.
  7. ↑ Haskell, William L.; et al. (2007). "Physical Activity and Public Health". Circulation. 116 (9): 1081–1093. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.185649 . ISSN   0009-7322. PMID   17671237.
  8. ↑ Riley, Kristen E.; Park, Crystal L. (2015). "How does yoga reduce stress? A systematic review of mechanisms of change and guide to future inquiry". Health Psychology Review. 9 (3): 379–396. doi:10.1080/17437199.2014.981778. PMID   25559560. S2CID   35963343.
  9. ↑ Krisanaprakornkit, T.; Ngamjarus, C.; Witoonchart, C.; Piyavhatkul, N. (2010). "Meditation therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2010 (6): CD006507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006507.pub2. PMC   6823216 . PMID   20556767.
  10. ↑ Uebelacker, L. A.; Epstein-Lubow, G.; Gaudiano, B. A.; Tremont, G.; Battle, C. L.; Miller, I. W. (2010). "Hatha yoga for depression: critical review of the evidence for efficacy, plausible mechanisms of action, and directions for future research". Journal of Psychiatric Practice. 16 (1): 22–33. doi:10.1097/01.pra.0000367775.88388.96. PMID   20098228. S2CID   205423922.
  11. ↑ Nguyen-Feng, Viann N.; Clark, Cari J.; Butler, Mary E. (August 2019). "Yoga as an intervention for psychological symptoms following trauma: A systematic review and quantitative synthesis". Psychological Services. 16 (3): 513–523. doi:10.1037/ser0000191. PMID   29620390. S2CID   4607801.

Other

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Novella, Steven (31 July 2013). "Yoga Woo". Science-Based Medicine.
  2. ↑ Mishra, Debashree (3 July 2016). "Once Upon A Time: From 1918, this Yoga institute has been teaching generations, creating history". Indian Express . Mumbai.
  3. ↑ "Yoga". Merriam-Webster . Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  4. ↑ Salamon, Maureen (30 May 2013). "The Science of Yoga and Why It Works". LiveScience.
  5. ↑ Rankin-Box, Denise (18 June 2015). "The science of yoga — what research reveals". Elsevier.
  6. ↑ Brody, Jane E. (21 December 2015). "12 Minutes of Yoga for Bone Health". The New York Times .

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