Hindu denominations

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Hindu denominations, sampradayas , traditions, movements, and sects are traditions and sub-traditions within Hinduism centered on one or more gods or goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and so on. [1] The term sampradaya is used for branches with a particular founder-guru with a particular philosophy. [2]

Contents

Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition. [3] Four major traditions are, however, used in scholarly studies: Vaishnavism , Shaivism , Shaktism and Smartism . [1] [4] [5] [6] These are sometimes referred to as the denominations of Hinduism, and they differ in the primary deity at the centre of each tradition. [7]

A notable feature of Hindu denominations is that they do not deny other concepts of the divine or deity, and often celebrate the other as henotheistic equivalent. [8] The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism". [9]

Although Hinduism contains many denominations and philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, pilgrimage to sacred sites and the questioning of authority. [10]

Etymology

The word Hindu is an exonym. This word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means "a large body of water", covering "river, ocean". It was used as the name of the Indus River and also referred to its tributaries. The actual term 'Hindu' first occurs, states Gavin Flood, as "a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)". Hindus are persons who regard themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent. In the 18th century, European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus until about mid 20th century. Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. [11] [12] [13]

Overview of Denominations

Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent. [14] Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti) and Smartism (five deities treated as same). [4] [5] [15] These deity-centered denominations feature a synthesis of various philosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta, as well as shared spiritual concepts such as moksha, dharma, karma, samsara, ethical precepts such as ahimsa, texts (Upanishads, Puranas, Mahabharata, Agamas), ritual grammar and rites of passage. [10] [16]

Six generic types (McDaniel)

McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic types of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject: [17]

Sampradaya

In Hinduism, a sampradaya (IAST sampradāya) [lower-alpha 1] is a denomination. [19] These are teaching traditions with autonomous practices and monastic centers, with a guru lineage, with ideas developed and transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers. [20] A particular guru lineage is called parampara . By receiving diksha (initiation) into the parampara of a living guru, one belongs to its proper sampradaya.

Number of adherents

There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism. [21]

Thus, the Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly. [22] The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius J. Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati (such as Durga, Radha, Sita and others) and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions. [23]

Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 252 million or 26.6%, Shaktism with 30 million or 3.2% and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million or 2.6%. [24] In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism. [25]

Demographics of major traditions within Hinduism (World Religion Database, as of 2010) [26]
TraditionFollowers % of the Hindu population % of the world populationFollower dynamicsWorld dynamics
Vaishnavism 640,806,84567.69.3Increase2.svg GrowingIncrease2.svg Growing
Shaivism 252,200,00026.63.7Increase2.svg GrowingIncrease2.svg Growing
Shaktism 30,000,0003.20.4Steady2.svg StableDecrease2.svg Declining
Neo-Hinduism 20,300,0002.10.3Increase2.svg GrowingIncrease2.svg Growing
Reform Hinduism 5,200,0000.50.1Increase2.svg GrowingIncrease2.svg Growing
Cumulative948,575,00010013.8Increase2.svg GrowingIncrease2.svg Growing

Main denominations

Vaishnavism

Vaishnavism focuses on Vishnu or one of his avatars, such as Krishna above Krishna, Kottangal padayani.JPG
Vaishnavism focuses on Vishnu or one of his avatars, such as Krishna above

Vaishnavism is a devotional stream of Hinduism, which worships the god Vishnu as the Supreme Lord (Svayam Bhagavan). As well as Vishnu himself, followers of the denomination also worship Vishnu's ten incarnations (the Dashavatara). [27] The two most-worshipped incarnations of Vishnu are Krishna (especially within Krishnaism as the Supreme) [28] and Rama, whose stories are told in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, respectively. The adherents of this sect are generally non-ascetic, monastic and devoted to meditative practice and ecstatic chanting. [29] Vaishnavism is characterised by diverse adherence to a number of saints, temples, and scriptures. [30]

Among Historical Vishnuism are known the Bhagavatism, Pancharatra, and Vaikhanasa traditions.

The major living Vaishnava sampradayas include: [27] [31]

Minor and regional Vaishnavite schools and the principal acharyas connected with them are: [31]

Shaivism

Shaivism focuses on Shiva Murudeshwar Shiva.jpg
Shaivism focuses on Shiva

Shaivas or Shaivites are those who primarily worship Shiva as the supreme god, both immanent and transcendent. Shaivism embraces at the same time monism (specifically nondualism) and dualism. To Shaivites, Shiva is both with and without form; he is the Supreme Dancer, Nataraja; and is linga, without beginning or end. Shiva is sometimes depicted as the fierce god Bhairava. Saivists are more attracted to asceticism than devotees of other Hindu sects and may be found wandering India with ashen faces, performing self-purification rituals. [29] They worship in the temple and practice yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within. [30]

The major schools of Shaivism include: [5]

Other branches:

Shaktism

Shaktism is a Goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism. From left: Parvati/Durga, Kali and Lakshmi 3 Shaktism goddesses Devi collage.jpg
Shaktism is a Goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism. From left: Parvati/Durga, Kali and Lakshmi

Shaktas worship the Mother Goddess as Shakti, in different forms. These forms may include Kali, Parvati/Durga, Lakshmi and Saraswati. The branch of Hinduism that worships the goddess, known as Devi, is called Shaktism. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the supreme power of the universe. Devi is often depicted as Parvati (the consort of Shiva) or as Lakshmi (the consort of Vishnu). She is also depicted in other manifestations, such as the protective Durga or the violent Kali. Shaktism is closely related with Tantric Hinduism, which teaches rituals and practices for purification of the mind and body. [29]

Animal sacrifice of cockerels, goats and to a lesser extent water buffaloes is practiced by Shakta devotees, mainly at temples of goddesses such as Bhavani or Kali. [39] [40]

The main traditions are:

The Goddess-centric traditions within Kashmir Shaivism are Trika and Kubjika.

Smartism

Om Aum Om gold circle black.svg
Om

Smartas treat all deities as the same, and their temples include five deities (Pancopasana) or Panchadevata as personal saguna (divine with form) manifestation of the nirguna (divine without form) Absolute, the Brahman. The choice of the nature of God is up to the individual worshiper since different manifestations of God are held to be equivalent. It is nonsectarian as it encourages the worship of any personal god along with others such as Ganesha, Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya. [29]

The Smarta Tradition accepts two concepts of Brahman, which are the saguna brahman – the Brahman with attributes, and nirguna brahman – the Brahman without attributes. [41] The nirguna Brahman is the unchanging Reality, however, the saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing this nirguna Brahman. [42] In this tradition, the concept of the saguna Brahman is considered to be a useful symbolism and means for those who are still on their spiritual journey. However, the saguna concept is abandoned by the fully enlightened once they realize the identity of their own soul with that of the nirguna Brahman. [42] A Smarta may choose any saguna deity (istadevata) such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Surya, Ganesha or any other, and this is viewed in Smarta Tradition as an interim step towards meditating on Om and true nature of supreme reality, thereby realizing the nirguna Brahman and its equivalence to one's own Atman, as in Advaita Vedanta. [43]

The movement is credited to Shankara, who is regarded as the greatest teacher [44] [45] and reformer of the Smarta. [46] [45] According to Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta tradition. [47] The Sringeri Sharada Peetham in Karnataka, believed by its members to have been founded by Shankara, is still the centre of the Smarta sect for its followers. Smartas follow 4 other major Mathas namely, Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, Puri Govardan Math, Dwaraka Sharada Peetham, and Jyotir Muth. All Mathas are headed by Sankaracharyas. [44] [45]

The traditions are:

Panchayatana puja, also known as Pancha Devi Deva Puja is a system of puja (worship) within the Smarta sampradaya. [48]

Overlap

Halbfass states that, although traditions such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations", [49] there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives" [49] of each tradition which indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon". [49] It is common to find Hindus revering Shiva, Vishnu and Shakti, and celebrating festivals related to them at different times of the year. Temples often feature more than one of them, and Hinduism is better understood as polycentric theosophy that leaves the choice of deity and ideas to the individual. [9]

The key concepts and practises of the four major denominations of Hinduism can be compared as below:

Comparison of four major traditions of Hinduism
Shaiva TraditionsVaishnava TraditionsShakti TraditionsSmarta TraditionsSrauta TraditionsReferences
Scriptural authorityVedas, Upanishads and AgamasVedas, Upanishads and AgamasVedas and UpanishadsVedas and UpanishadsVedas [25] [50]
Supreme deityGod ShivaGod VishnuGoddess DeviNoneNone [51] [52]
CreatorShivaVishnuDeviBrahman principleBrahman principle [51] [53]
Avatar MajorKey conceptSignificantMinorMinor [25] [54] [55]
Monastic lifeRecommendsAcceptsAcceptsRecommendsAccepts (with exceptions) [25] [56] [57]
Rituals, Bhakti Affirms [58] [59] [60] AffirmsAffirmsOptional [61] Affirms [62]
Ahimsa and VegetarianismRecommends, [58] OptionalAffirmsOptionalAffirms except for sacrificial occasionsAffirms except for sacrificial occasions [63] [64]
Free will, Maya, Karma AffirmsAffirmsAffirmsAffirmsAffirms [51]
Metaphysics Brahman (Shiva), Atman (Soul, Self)Brahman (Vishnu), AtmanBrahman (Devi), AtmanBrahman, AtmanBrahman, Atman,

Karma, Dharma

 [51]
Epistemology
(Pramana)		1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony
4. Self-evident [65] 		1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony		1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Reliable testimony		1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Comparison and analogy
4. Postulation, derivation
5. Negative/cognitive proof
6. Reliable testimony		1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Comparison and analogy
4. Postulation, derivation
5. Negative/cognitive proof
6. Reliable testimony		 [66] [67] [68]
PhilosophyDvaita, qualified advaita, advaitaDvaita, qualified advaita, advaitaShakti-advaitaAdvaitaPurva Mimamsa [69] [70]
Salvation
(Soteriology)		Jivanmukta,
Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana [71] 		Videhamukti, Yoga,
champions householder life		Bhakti, Tantra, YogaJivanmukta, Advaita, Yoga,
champions monastic life		Videhamukti, Yoga,

Dharmic Karma,

champions householder life		 [72] [73]

Other denominations

Suryaism / Saurism

The Suryaites or Sauras are followers of a Hindu denomination that started in Vedic tradition, and worship Surya as the main visible form of the Saguna Brahman. The Saura tradition was influential in South Asia, particularly in the west, north and other regions, with numerous Surya idols and temples built between 800 and 1000 CE. [74] [75] The Konark Sun Temple was built in the mid 13th century. [76] During the iconoclasm of Islamic invasions and Hindu–Muslim wars, the temples dedicated to Sun-god were among those desecrated, images smashed and the resident priests of Saura tradition were killed, states André Wink. [77] [78] The Surya tradition of Hinduism declined in the 12th and 13th century CE and today remains as a very small movement except in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. [ citation needed ] Sun worship has continued to be a dominant practice in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh in the form of Chhath Puja which is considered the primary festival of importance in these regions.

Ganapatism

Ganapatism is a Hindu denomination in which Ganesha is worshipped as the main form of the Saguna Brahman. This sect was widespread and influential in the past and has remained important in Maharashtra.[ citation needed ]

Indonesian Hinduism

Hinduism dominated the island of Java and Sumatra until the late 16th century, when a vast majority of the population converted to Islam. Only the Balinese people who formed a majority on the island of Bali, retained this form of Hinduism over the centuries. Theologically, Balinese or Indonesian Hinduism is closer to Shaivism than to other major sects of Hinduism. The adherents consider Acintya the supreme god, and all other gods as his manifestations.

The term "Agama Hindu Dharma", the endonymous Indonesian name for "Indonesian Hinduism" can also refer to the traditional practices in Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi and other places in Indonesia, where people have started to identify and accept their agamas as Hinduism or Hindu worship has been revived. The revival of Hinduism in Indonesia has given rise to a national organisation, the Parisada Hindu Dharma.

Shrautism

Shrauta communities are very rare in India, the most well known being the ultra-orthodox Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala. They follow the "Purva-Mimamsa" (earlier portion of Vedas) in contrast to Vedanta followed by other Brahmins. They place importance on the performance of Vedic Sacrifice (Yajna). The Nambudiri Brahmins are famous for their preservation of the ancient Somayaagam, Agnicayana rituals which have vanished in other parts of India.[ citation needed ]

Kaumaram

Kaumaram is a sect of Hindus, especially found in South India and Sri Lanka where Kartikeya is worshipped as the Supreme God. The worshippers of Kartikeya are called Kaumaras.[ citation needed ]

Dattatreya Sampradaya

Dattatreya Sampradaya is a Hindu denomination associated with the worship of Dattatreya as the supreme god. This denomination found in Indian states like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttarakhand. Dattatreya is often considered as an avatara of three Hindu gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, collectively known as the Trimurti. Main traditions linked with Dattatreya Sampradaya are:

Sant Mat

The Sant Mat was a group of reformer poet-sants and their adherents within Hinduism during the 14th–17th centuries who had desire for religious pluralism and non-ritualistic spirituality. [80] Due to Kabir's affiliation with Vaishnavite Ramanandi Sampradaya and certain aspects of the creed, the Sant Mat is sometimes seen as part of Vaishnavism. [27] Among its living traditions are:

Newer movements

The Hindu new religious movements that arose in the 19th to 20th century include: [83]

Sarnaism

Sarna are sacred groves in the Indian religious traditions of the Chota Nagpur Plateau region in the states of Jharkhand, Bihar, Assam and Chhattisgarh. [111] Followers of these rituals primarily belong to the Munda, Bhumij, Kharia, Baiga, Ho, Kurukh and Santal.[ citation needed ] According to local belief, a Gram deoti or village deity resides in the sarna, where sacrifice is offered twice a year. Their belief system is called "Sarnaism", "Sarna Dharma" or "Religion of the Holy Woods". [112]

Kiratism

The practice is also known as Kirat Veda, [113] [114] Kirat-Ko Veda [115] or Kirat Ko Ved. [116] According to some scholars, such as Tom Woodhatch, it is shamanism, animistic religion or blend of shamanism, animism (e.g., ancestor worshiping of Yuma Sammang/Tagera Ningwaphumang and Paruhang/Sumnima), [117] and Shaivism. [118]

Kalash and Nuristani religion

The Indo-Aryan Kalash people in Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which some authors characterise as an archaic form of ancient Indo-Aryan religion. [119] [120] [121] The Nuristanis of Afghanistan and Pakistan until the late 19th century had followed a religion which was described as a form of ancient Hinduism. [122] [123] [124]

Contemporary Sant Mat

The contemporary Sant Mat is a 19th-century origin movement. [125] Scholars are divided as to whether to call Radha Soami a 1) Sikh-derived or 2) Hindu–Sikh-synthesed or 3) independent version of the medieval Sant Mat as new universal religion. [126]

Slavic Vedism

Slavic, Russian, Peterburgian Vedism or simply Vedism [127] [128] are terms used to describe one of the earliest branch of Slavic Native Faith ("Rodnovery")—contemporary indigenous development of Vedic forms of religion in Russia, especially of Saint Petersburg's communities, other Slavic countries, and generally all the post-Soviet states. The word "Vedism" comes from the verb "to know" (vedatʼ)—a semantic root which is shared in Slavic and Sanskrit languages alike. [129]

Slavic Vedism involves the worship of Vedic gods, characterised by its use of indigenous Slavic rituals and Slavic names for the deities, distinguishing from other groups which have maintained a stronger bond with modern Hinduism, although Krishnaite groups often identify themselves as "Vedic" too. Also some syncretic groups within Slavic Native Faith (Slavic Neopaganism) use the term "Vedism". [130]

Cross-denominational influences

Atman Jnana

Jñāna is a Sanskrit word that means knowledge. In Vedas it means true knowledge, that (atman) is identical with Brahman. It is also referred to as Atma Jnana which is frequently translated as self-realization .

Bhakti movement

The Bhakti movement was a theistic devotional trend that originated in the seventh-century Tamil south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards. [131] It swept over east and north India from the fifteenth-century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE. [131] [132] The Bhakti movement regionally developed as Hindu denominations around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism. [1] [7] [133] The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta. [131] [134] Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana. [135] [136]

As part of the legacy of the Alvars, five Vaishnava philosophical traditions (sampradayas) has developed at the later stages. [137]

Philosophical schools

Hindu philosophy is traditionally divided into six āstika (Sanskrit : आस्तिक "orthodox") schools of thought, [138] or darśanam (दर्शनम्, "view"), which accept the Vedas as the supreme revealed scriptures. The schools are:

  1. Samkhya, a non theistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness and matter.
  2. Yoga, a school emphasizing meditation, contemplation and liberation.
  3. Nyaya or logic, explores sources of knowledge. Nyāya Sūtras .
  4. Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism
  5. Mimāṃsā, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy
  6. Vedanta, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or the 'Jnan' (knowledge) 'Kanda' (section).

The nāstika/heterodox schools are (in chronological order):

  1. Cārvāka
  2. Jainism
  3. Ājīvika
  4. Buddhism
  5. Ajñana

However, medieval philosophers like Vidyāraṇya classified Indian philosophy into sixteen schools, where schools belonging to Shaiva, Pāṇini and Raseśvara thought are included with others, and the three Vedantic schools Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita (which had emerged as distinct schools by then) are classified separately. [139]

In Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages and modern times, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy, as follows: [140] [141]

Nyaya survived into the 17th century as Navya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.

Yoga varieties

See also

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bhagavata Sampradaya</span> Ancient Indian religious tradition

The Bhagavata tradition, also called Bhagavatism, refers to an ancient religious sect that traced its origin to the region of Mathura. After its syncretism with the Brahmanical tradition of Vishnu, Bhagavatism became a pan-Indian tradition by the second century BCE, according to R.C. Majumdar.

Sampradaya, in Indian origin religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, can be translated as 'tradition', 'spiritual lineage', 'sect', or 'religious system'. To ensure continuity and transmission of dharma, various sampradayas have the Guru-shishya parampara in which parampara or lineage of successive gurus (masters) and shishyas (disciples) serves as a spiritual channel and provides a reliable network of relationships that lends stability to a religious identity. Shramana is vedic term for seeker or shishya. Identification with and followership of sampradayas is not static, as sampradayas allows flexibility where one can leave one sampradaya and enter another or practice religious syncretism by simultaneously following more than one sampradaya. Samparda is a Punjabi language term, used in Sikhism, for sampradayas.

<i>Smarta</i> tradition Tradition in Hinduism linked to Advaita Vedanta

The Smartatradition, also called Smartism, is a movement in Hinduism that developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature. It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands, namely Uttara Mīmāṃsā, Advaita, Yoga, and theism. The Smarta tradition rejects theistic sectarianism, and is notable for the domestic worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal – Ganesha, Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu and Surya. The Smarta tradition contrasted with the older Shrauta tradition, which was based on elaborate rituals and rites. There has been a considerable overlap in the ideas and practices of the Smarta tradition with other significant historic movements within Hinduism, namely Shaivism, Brahmanism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">God in Hinduism</span> Hindu conception of God

In Hinduism, the conception of God varies in its diverse religio-philosophical traditions. Hinduism comprises a wide range of beliefs about God and Divinity, such as henotheism, monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, pandeism, monism, agnosticism, atheism, and nontheism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vaishnavism</span> Major Hindu tradition that reveres Vishnu as the Supreme Being

Vaishnavism is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the sole supreme being leading all other Hindu deities, that is, Mahavishnu. Its followers are called Vaishnavites or Vaishnavas, and it includes sub-sects like Krishnaism and Ramaism, which consider Krishna and Rama as the supreme beings respectively. According to a 2010 estimate by Johnson and Grim, Vaishnavism is the largest Hindu sect, constituting about 641 million or 67.6% of Hindus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sri Vaishnavism</span> One of the major Vaishnava traditions

Sri Vaishnavism is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism, predominantly practiced in South India. The name refers to goddess Lakshmi, as well as a prefix that means "sacred, revered", and the god Vishnu, who are together revered in this tradition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sat Vaishnavism</span> Tradition in Hinduism linked to Dvaita Vedanta

Sat Vaishnavism, also referred to as Madhva Vaishnavism, the Madhva Sampradaya and the Brahma Sampradaya, is a denomination within the Vaishnavism—Bhagavata tradition of Hinduism. Sadh Vaishnavism was founded by thirteenth century philosopher-saint Madhvacharya, who developed the Tattvavada (dvaita) Vedanta sub-school of Hindu philosophy.

Para Brahman or Param Brahman in Hindu philosophy is the "Supreme Brahman" that which is beyond all descriptions and conceptualisations. It is described as beyond the form or the formlessness that eternally pervades everything, everywhere in the universe and whatever is beyond.

References

Notes

  1. ↑ Quoted in Böhtlingk's Sanskrit-Sanskrit dictionary, entry Sampradaya. [18]

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, ISBN   978-0814658567, pages 562–563
  2. ↑ Lipner 2009, pp. 377, 398.
  3. ↑ Werner 1994, p. 73.
  4. 1 2 Bhandarkar 1913.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Tattwananda n.d.
  6. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 113, 134, 155–161, 167–168.
  7. 1 2 SS Kumar (2010), Bhakti — the Yoga of Love, LIT Verlag Münster, ISBN   978-3643501301, pp. 35–36.
  8. ↑ George Lundskow (2008). The Sociology of Religion: A Substantive and Transdisciplinary Approach. Sage Publ. pp. 252–253. ISBN   978-1-4522-4518-8.
  9. 1 2 Lipner 2009, pp. 371–375.
  10. 1 2 Frazier 2011, pp. 1–15.
  11. ↑ Lipner 2009, p. 8, Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.".
  12. ↑ Lester Kurtz (ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, ISBN   978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008.
  13. ↑ MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
  14. ↑ Matthew Clarke (2011). Development and Religion: Theology and Practice. Edward Elgar. p. 28. ISBN   9780857930736.
  15. ↑ Flood 1996, pp. 113, 154.
  16. ↑ Lipner 2009, pp. 17–18, 81–82, 183–201, 206–215, 330–331, 371–375.
  17. ↑ J. McDaniel Hinduism, in John Corrigan, The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52–53 ISBN   0-19-517021-0
  18. ↑ Apte 1965.
  19. ↑ Lipner 2009, p. 398.
  20. ↑ Lipner 2009, pp. 375–377, 397–398.
  21. ↑ The global religious landscape: Hindus Archived 9 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine , Pew Research (2012)
  22. ↑ Gavin Flood, ed. (2008). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. John Wiley & Sons. p. 200. ISBN   978-0-470-99868-7., Quote: "it is often impossible to meaningfully distinguish between Saiva and Sakta traditions".
  23. ↑ Lipner 2009, pp. 40–41, 302–315, 371–375.
  24. ↑ Johnson, Todd M; Grim, Brian J (2013). The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography. John Wiley & Sons. p. 400. ISBN   978-1-118-32303-8.
  25. 1 2 3 4 Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 474.
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  27. 1 2 3 Dandekar 1987.
  28. ↑ Hardy 1987.
  29. 1 2 3 4 Dubois (1 April 2007). Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies. Cosimo. p. 111. ISBN   9781602063365.
  30. 1 2 "HimalayanAcademy" . Retrieved 7 February 2014.
  31. 1 2 Tattwananda n.d., pp. 13–68.
  32. ↑ Chopra, Omesh K. (2 March 2020). History of Ancient India Revisited, A Vedic-Puranic View. BlueRose Publishers. p. 454.
  33. ↑ Eraly, Abraham (2011). The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Penguin Books India. p. 853. ISBN   978-0-670-08478-4.
  34. ↑ Selva Raj and William Harman (2007), Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia, State University of New York Press, ISBN   978-0791467084, pages 165–166
  35. ↑ James G Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN   978-0823931804, pages 553–554
  36. ↑ Lamb 2008, pp. 317–330.
  37. ↑ A. K. Ramanujan, ed. (1973). Speaking of Śiva . UNESCO. Indian translation series. Penguin classics. Religion and mythology. Penguin India. p.  175. ISBN   978-0-14-044270-0.
  38. ↑ "Lingayat." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09 Jul. 2010.
  39. ↑ Fuller Christopher John (2004). "4". The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India (Revised and Expanded ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 83. ISBN   978-0-691-12048-5.
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  41. ↑ Rambachan, Anantanand (2001). "Heirarchies [sic] in the Nature of God? Questioning the "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta". Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies. 14. doi: 10.7825/2164-6279.1250 .
  42. 1 2 William Wainwright (2012), Concepts of God, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University
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  44. 1 2 Doniger 1999, p. 1017.
  45. 1 2 3 Popular Prakashan 2000, p. 52.
  46. ↑ Rosen 2006, p. 166.
  47. ↑ Hiltebeitel 2002.
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  51. 1 2 3 4 Gonda 1970.
  52. ↑ Christopher Partridge (2013). Introduction to World Religions. Fortress Press. p. 182. ISBN   978-0-8006-9970-3.
  53. ↑ Sanjukta Gupta (2013). Advaita Vedanta and Vaisnavism: The Philosophy of Madhusudana Sarasvati. Routledge. pp. 65–71. ISBN   978-1-134-15774-7.
  54. ↑ Lai Ah Eng (2008). Religious Diversity in Singapore. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. p. 221. ISBN   978-981-230-754-5.
  55. ↑ Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002). Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives. Rodopi. p. 63. ISBN   90-420-1510-1.
  56. ↑ Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, ISBN   978-0812692983, p. 332 with note 68.
  57. ↑ Olivelle, Patrick (1992). The Samnyasa Upanisads. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–18. ISBN   978-0195070453.
  58. 1 2 Flood 1996, pp. 162–167.
  59. ↑ "Shaivas". Overview Of World Religions. Philtar. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
  60. ↑ Munavalli, Somashekar (2007). Lingayat Dharma (Veerashaiva Religion) (PDF). Veerashaiva Samaja of North America. p. 83. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2013. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
  61. ↑ Prem Prakash (1998). The Yoga of Spiritual Devotion: A Modern Translation of the Narada Bhakti Sutras. Inner Traditions. pp. 56–57. ISBN   978-0-89281-664-4.
  62. ↑ Frazier, J. (2013). "Bhakti in Hindu Cultures". The Journal of Hindu Studies. 6 (2). Oxford University Press: 101–113. doi:10.1093/jhs/hit028.
  63. ↑ Lisa Kemmerer; Anthony J. Nocella (2011). Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World's Religions. Lantern. pp. 27–36. ISBN   978-1-59056-281-9.
  64. ↑ Frederick J. Simoons (1998). Plants of Life, Plants of Death. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 182–183. ISBN   978-0-299-15904-7.
  65. ↑ K. Sivaraman (1973). Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 336–340. ISBN   978-81-208-1771-5.
  66. ↑ John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN   978-0791430675, page 238
  67. ↑ Flood 1996, p. 225.
  68. ↑ Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, ISBN   978-0815336112, pp. 245-248.
  69. ↑ McDaniel, June (2004). Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls. Oxford University Press. pp. 89–91. ISBN   978-0-19-534713-5.
  70. ↑ Matthew James Clark (2006). The Daśanāmī-saṃnyāsīs: The Integration of Ascetic Lineages Into an Order. Brill. pp. 177–225. ISBN   978-90-04-15211-3.
  71. ↑ Hurley, Leigh; Hurley, Phillip (2012). Tantra, Yoga of Ecstasy: the Sadhaka's Guide to Kundalinin and the Left-Hand Path. Maithuna Publications. p. 5. ISBN   9780983784722.
  72. ↑ Kim Skoog (1996). Andrew O. Fort; Patricia Y. Mumme (eds.). Living Liberation in Hindu Thought. SUNY Press. pp. 63–84, 236–239. ISBN   978-0-7914-2706-4.
  73. ↑ Rajendra Prasad (2008). A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals. Concept. p. 375. ISBN   978-81-8069-544-5.
  74. ↑ André Wink (2002). Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th–11th Centuries. BRILL. pp. 292–293. ISBN   0-391-04173-8.
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  76. ↑ Finbarr Barry Flood (2009). Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter. Princeton University Press. p. 218. ISBN   978-0-691-12594-7.
  77. ↑ André Wink (1997). Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest : 11th–13th Centuries. BRILL Academic. pp. 327–329. ISBN   90-04-10236-1.
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  82. ↑ Singh, Pashaura & Fenech, Louis E. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies. Oxford University Press. p. 376. ISBN   978-0-19-969930-8 – via Google Books.
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  89. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 89–91.
  90. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 92–93.
  91. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 109–110.
  92. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 121.
  93. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 200–201.
  94. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 178.
  95. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 183–184.
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  97. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 361–362.
  98. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 492–493.
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  101. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 483–484.
  102. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 389–390.
  103. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, pp. 392–394.
  104. ↑ Jones & Ryan 2007, p. 31–33.
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  116. ↑ p. 323 Kiratas in Ancient India By G. P. Singh, Dhaneswar Kalita, V Sudarsen, M A Kalam
  117. ↑ "History and Culture of the Kirat" by I.S.Chemjong
  118. ↑ p. 535 Nepal By Tom Woodhatch
  119. ↑ Michael, Witzel (2004). "Kalash Religion (extract from 'The Ṛgvedic Religious System and its Central Asian and Hindukush Antecedents')" (PDF). In A. Griffiths; J. E. M. Houben (eds.). The Vedas: Texts, Language and Ritual. Groningen: Forsten. pp. 581–636.
  120. ↑ West, Barbara A. (2010). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing. p. 357. ISBN   9781438119137. The Kalasha ... religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the Ancient Greeks, who mythology says are the ancestors of the contemporary Kalash... However, it is much more likely, given their Indo-Aryan language, that the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.
  121. ↑ "Peshawar HC orders government to include Kalash religion in census". The Indian Express . 4 April 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
  122. ↑ Minahan, James B. (10 February 2014). Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 205. ISBN   9781610690188. Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of ancient Hinduism with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, called imr'o or imra by the Nuristani tribes.
  123. ↑ Barrington, Nicholas; Kendrick, Joseph T.; Schlagintweit, Reinhard (18 April 2006). A Passage to Nuristan: Exploring the Mysterious Afghan Hinterland. I.B. Tauris. p. 111. ISBN   9781845111755. Prominent sites include Hadda, near Jalalabad, but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan, where the people continued to practise an early form of polytheistic Hinduism.
  124. ↑ Weiss, Mitch; Maurer, Kevin (31 December 2012). No Way Out: A Story of Valor in the Mountains of Afghanistan. Berkley Caliber. p. 299. ISBN   9780425253403. Up until the late nineteenth century, many Nuristanis practised a primitive form of Hinduism. It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam—and the conversion was accomplished by the sword.
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  126. 1 2 Zoccarelli, Pierluigi (2006). "Radhasoami movements". In Clarke, Peter B. (ed.). Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 507–509. ISBN   9-78-0-415-26707-6.
  127. ↑ Michael F. Strmiska. Modern Paganism in World Cultures . ABC-CLIO, 2005. p. 222: "In addition to Ukrainian Paganism, Russian and Pan-Slavic varieties of Paganism and "Slavic Vedism" can also be found in Ukraine."
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  133. ↑ Wendy Doniger (2009), Bhakti, Encyclopædia Britannica; The Four Denomination of Hinduism Himalayan Academy (2013)
  134. ↑ Christian Novetzke (2007), Bhakti and Its Public, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3, page 255–272
  135. ↑ Catherine Robinson (2005), Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition, Routledge, ISBN   978-0415346719, pages 28–30
  136. ↑ Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN   978-0195351903, pages 26–32, 217–218
  137. ↑ Mittal, S. G. R. Thursby (2006). Religions of South Asia: An Introduction. Routledge.
  138. ↑ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see:( Mādhava Āchārya 1882 )( Dasgupta 1922–1955 , Vol. 1)( Radhakrishnan 1927 )
  139. ↑ Mādhava Āchārya 1882, p. xii.
  140. ↑ Dasgupta 1922–1955.
  141. ↑ Radhakrishnan 1927.
  142. ↑ Lamb 2008.
  143. ↑ Singleton & Goldberg 2014.

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