Hindu iconography

Last updated June 27, 2024

Over the millennia of its development, Hinduism has adopted several iconic symbols, forming part of Hindu iconography, that are imbued with spiritual meaning based on either the scriptures or cultural traditions. The exact significance accorded to any of the icons varies with region, period and denomination of the followers. Over time some of the symbols, for instance the Swastika has come to have wider association while others like Om are recognized as unique representations of Hinduism. Other aspects of Hindu iconography are covered by the terms murti, for icons and mudra for gestures and positions of the hands and body.

Hindu sacraments

Hindu sacraments are physical pieces of that help objects or markings that are considered sacred and used as a sign of devotion by the followers of Hinduism. These are often objects associated with a puja (prayer) or religious ceremony.

Murti

Murtis (Sanskrit: मूर्ति) are sacred works of art, primarily in the form of statues and paintings, which serve as representations of divinity, for use during religious devotion. Murtis are a huge part of contemporary mainstream Hindu culture and often hold significant sentimental value in many Hindu homes. Many believe that murtis are vessels that capture the essence of gods, which helps the devotees focus and concentrate during prayers.^[1] Although there are many Hindu gods, the most common murtis are depictions of Ganesha, Hanuman, Shiva, and Lakshmi. Each deity appeals to certain aspects of human life, for example Lakshmi is the goddess of fortune and the embodiment of love, while Hanuman is worshiped for strength and loyalty.^[2]

Tilaka

The tilaka (or tilak) is a mark worn on the forehead or other parts of the body as a sign of spiritual devotion. Hindus may wear a tilaka regularly or especially on religious occasions. The shape of the tilaka is often an indicator of devotion to a certain deity. For example, the U-shaped urdhva pundra usually denotes devotion to Vishnu, while Shiva devotees often wear it in the form of three horizontal lines. It may be made of saffron, vermilion, turmeric, clay, or simply ash.

To denote marriage and auspiciousness, married Hindu women commonly wear a decorative vermilion dot or bindu, or bindī on the forehead. This is analogous to a wedding ring worn in western countries. In southern India, the mark is called pottu (or bottu). The exact shape, size and location of the bindi or pottu shows regional variation; for instance, in some parts of India the bindi is often worn just below the hairline, while in southern India it is more common to wear it between the eyebrows. In east India, especially in West Bengal, traditionally larger bindis are worn as mark of devotion towards goddess Durga.

Vibhuti

Vibhuti (☰) is the holy ash obtained from sacred puja rites involving fire. Ash is considered a sign of purity due to its powdery white color.^[3] It is used on the forehead, normally as three horizontal lines representing Shiva. Some Hindus meld both the three horizontal vibhuti lines of Shiva and the U-shaped urdhva pundra of Vishnu in an amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva). In addition, sacred ash signifies that the body's origin is from dust and ash, acting a marker of impermanence and a reminder of the illusory nature ( maya ) of existence.

Rudraksha

Rudraksha (📿) are seeds of the rudraksha tree that represent the tears of Shiva (also known as Rudra). They are often threaded into a necklace and used as a rosary to accompany prayer and meditation.

Universal symbols

Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, three are a quintessential part of its culture, and are most representative of its general ethos:

Om

Om (or Aum, ॐ) is the sacred sound symbol that represents the universe; the ultimate reality (Brahman). It is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Vedic mantras and prayers. Aum is often said to represent God in the three aspects of Brahman (A), Vishnu (U) and Shiva (M). As the divine primordial vibration, it represents the one ultimate reality underlying and encompassing all of nature and all of existence. The written syllable ॐ called omkara serves as a deeply significant and distinctly recognizable symbol for Hinduism. The pronunciation of Aum moves through all possible human linguistic vowel sounds and is different from the pronunciation of Om. Both are often symbolically equated, although they are sonically distinct.

Swastika

Swastika is a symbol connoting general auspiciousness. It may represent purity of soul, truth, and stability or, alternatively, Surya, the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. Its use in Hinduism dates back to ancient times, however the earliest records of swastikas were imprinted on pottery from central Mesopotamia and at Susa in western Iran in 4000 B.C.^[4]

Sri Chakra Yantra

The Sri Chakra Yantra of Tripura Sundari (commonly referred to as Sri Yantra) is a mandala formed by nine interlocking triangles. Four of these triangles are oriented upright, representing Shiva or the masculine principle. Five of these triangles are inverted triangles representing Shakti, the feminine principle. Together, the nine triangles form a web symbolic of the entire cosmos, a womb symbolic of creation, and together express Advaita Vedanta or non-duality. All other yantras are said to be derivatives of this supreme yantra.

Symbols associated with individual deities

Several symbols (animals, flora, instruments, weapons, or even color) in Hindu iconography are associated with particular devas, and vice versa. In certain cases the deities themselves are personifications of natural forces, for instance Agni (fire), Vayu (wind), Surya (Sun) and Prithvi (Earth). In other instances, the associations arise from specific incidents or characteristics related in Hindu theology. The iconography serve to identify the particular deity in their pictorial or sculptural representations. The symbolism also often links the deities with a particular natural or human attribute, or profession.

It is important to understand the symbolism, in order to appreciate the allegorical references in not only Hindu scriptures (for instance, Puranic tales), but also in both ancient and modern secular works of authors from the Indian subcontinent. The art and science of designing temples includes the study of sculpture and the ornamentation of religious significance as described in sacred texts (shilpa shaastra aagamas). In Ancient India twelve years of theoretical and practical training used to be given to the student by an able experienced teacher.

Shiva Lingam

The Shiva Lingam represents the deity Shiva, and is used as an icon of strength and fertility due to its sexual symbolism.^[5] Shivalinga (Sivalinga) is the most important and a popular symbolic representation of Shiva in Hinduism. It represents Shiva in his aspects of the creator, protector, and the destroyer in Shaiva traditions

Meaning

The word ‘Shivalinga’ is a combination of the words ‘Shiva’ (auspiciousness) and linga (sign or symbol). Thus ‘Shivalinga’ is a representation of Shiva in His all-auspicious aspect. Linga has been translated as phallus, which refers to his aspect of the masculine principle.^[6] ‘Linga’ also means the place of dissolution of the disintegrated universe.^[7]

Types

Based on the mobility of the object of worship, Shivalingas are broadly divided into two categories – ‘Cala’ and ‘Acala’^[8]

Cala Shivalinga

These are made of stone, crystal, metals, clay, rice, dough, etc. These can be moved from one place to another.^[8]

Acala Shivalingas

The sacred texts describe many types of the lingas based on variations in the proportion

Shivalingas are installed in temples and are fixed to ground or a base. They are usually made of stones or metals. The sacred texts suggest that the shiva linga must have three parts. A bottom most 1/3rd part that is in the earth - Brahma bhagam (represents Brahma, the Creator of the World) it is rectangular in cross section.^[8] A middle 1/3rd part is called Vishnu bhagam or Vishnu Bhaga (it represents Vishnu, the Protector and sustainer of the world; it is octagonal in cross section. Both the Brahma bhagam and Vishnu bhagam are embedded in peetham (the ornamental pedestal).^[9] A visible 1/3rd Shiva Pooja bhagam or Pooja bhaga (also known as Rudra bhagam or Rudra bhaga) which is top most part which is worshiped. It is circular in cross section and cylindrical in shape. It represents Rudra (Shiva), the destroyer of the world. It is known as Pooja bhagam because this part is worshipped.^[9]Brahmasutras: These are certain essential lines present on the Rudra bhagam (Rudra bhaga). Without them a Shivlinga is unfit to be worshipped.^[9] The Shiva linga is at the level of ground and easily accessible to the worshipers irrespective of their caste, social or economic status.

Lotus

The lotus is associated with the creation theology as well as the gods Vishnu, Brahma, and Lakshmi. It is the symbol of beauty and fertility. "In the Bhagavad Gita, a human is adjured to be like the lotus; they should work without attachment, dedicating their actions to God, untouched by sin like water on a lotus leaf, like a beautiful flower standing high above the mud and water."^[10]

Veena

The musical instrument Veena is associated with the Hindu goddess Saraswati and the sage Narada. Its origin lies in south India as it was used in Carnatic classical music.^[11] Furthermore its a symbol of arts and learning.

Conch

The conch shell is a major Hindu article of prayer, used as a trumpeting announcement of all sorts. In Vaishnavism, the god of preservation, Vishnu, is said to hold a special conch, Panchajanya, that represents life as it has come out of life-giving waters. In the story of Dhruva the divine conch plays a special part. The warriors of ancient India would blow conch shells to announce battle, such as is famously represented in the beginning of the war of Kurukshetra in the Mahabharata, a famous Hindu epic. The conch shell is also a deep part of Hindu symbolic and religious tradition. Today most Hindus use the conch as a part of their religious practices, blowing it during worship at specific points, accompanied by ceremonial bells. Shankha also symbolizes the sound that created the universe and stands for knowledge.

Chakra

The Chakra or disc-like weapon of Vishnu is often found mounted on the top of Vaishnava temples or incorporated into architectural designs. Images depicting Vishnu's four-armed Narayana form almost always include the Chakra in one of his hands. It is a general symbol for protection. Chakra is also known to symbolize the need to follow dharma and to condemn adharma.

Multiple heads and arms

In Indian dance, the idea of multiple arms is often shown by several dancers standing behind each other with their arms in different positions. Indian-dance-multiple-arms.jpg — In Indian dance, the idea of multiple arms is often shown by several dancers standing behind each other with their arms in different positions.

An array of Hindu, Buddhist, and some Jain deities are often depicted with multiple heads, arms, and other body parts, creating what one author refers to as a "multiplicity convention" in religious iconography.^[12]^[13] Such multiple body parts represent the divine omnipresence and immanence (ability to be in many places at once and simultaneously exist in all places at once), and thereby the ability to influence many things at once.^[12] The specific meanings attributed to the multiple body parts of an image are symbolic, not literal in context.^[14] In such depictions, the visual effect of an array of multiple arms is to create a kinetic energy showing that ability.^[15] Several Hindu deities are depicted in their Panchamukha (five-faced) aspect, as well as their Chaturbhuja (four-armed) aspect.^[16]

Vāhana

Vāhana or vehicle, sometimes called a mount, is an animal or mythical entity closely associated with a particular deity in Hindu theology. Sometimes the deity is iconographically depicted riding and/or mounted on the vahana; other times, the vahana is depicted at the deity's side or symbolically represented as a divine attribute.

Vishnu

Vishnu is the Protector-God, also the God of Destruction. Of the three gods of the Hindu Triad, Vishnu, being the Preserver, appears most human. The Rig Vedic Vishnu is conceived as the sun in three stages - rising, zenith and setting. The Vedic Vishnu strides through the heavens in three steps. This is Vishnu's great deed and constitutes his great glory. With these three steps Vishnu, a solar deity, courses through the three divisions of the universe, "the god being manifest in a threefold form, as Agni on earth, Indra or Vayu in the atmosphere and Surya in the sky". He is said to have taken these three steps for the preservation and benefit of mortals. The zenith is appropriately called Vishnu's place. His third step cannot be seen with human eyes. It is here that Indra dwells.

Table of symbols

Hindu Gods, Deities, Mythological Figures and Their Associated Symbols
God or deity	Associated symbols	Note
Adi Parashakti	Chariot (Ratha) of seven lions, Sri Chakra	Supreme goddess in Shaktism
Brahma	Lotus, swan (hamsa), Vedas, garland of beads (akshamala)	Creator
Vishnu	Shesha, shankha, chakra, gada, lotus, Garuda, color blue	Preserver
Shiva	Shiva Linga, Nandi, third eye, trishula (trident), crescent-moon, rudraksha, cobra, drum, tiger skin, vibhuti	Destroyer
Saraswati	White lotus, swan, peacock, veena, color white	Goddess of learning, music, and art
Lakshmi	Red lotus, elephant, shower of gold, kumbha, owl, peacock feather	Goddess of prosperity, wealth, love, and fortune
Parvati	Lion, Nandi, trident, chakra, gada, padam, couch, cross bow, khadag	Goddess of courage, fertility, and power
Indra	Thunderbolt (vajra), rainbow, clouds	King of the devas and Svarga
Varuna	Noose (pasha)	God of duty and contracts King of the waters
Yama	Noose (pasha), danda (rod), buffalo	King of the netherworld, God of death
Surya	Chariot, sun-rays, the colour of gold	The god of the sun
Kali	Garland of severed human heads, scimitar, khanda, khapar, khadag, trident	Fierce manifestation of Parvati
Rama	Bow and arrow, the colour blue, royal panoply	Embodiment of Righteousness
Krishna	The colour blue, cow, flute, Sudarshana Chakra, milk, peacock feather	God of Compassion, love, yoga, Svayam Bhagavan
Ganesha	Aṅkuśa, mouse, modak, Aum	God of wisdom, auspiciosness, good fortune
Murugan	Peacock, vel, rooster flag	God of war and commander-in-chief of the gods
Hanuman	gada	God of strength, courage, and devotion

Gopura

It is the tower that was built on the wall of entrance. It was many storied building, up to one storied to sixteen storied. It contains many portico like kudaivarai, prasthra, karnakuta, sala, panchara, kudu. It can be seen mainly in south Indian temples with Dravidian architecture.

Related Research Articles

Shiva, also known as Mahadeva or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hinduism.

The Trimurti is the trinity of supreme divinity in Hinduism, in which the cosmic functions of creation, preservation, and destruction are personified as a triad of deities. Typically, the designations are that of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer. The Om symbol of Hinduism is considered to have an allusion to Trimurti, where the A, U, and M phonemes of the word are considered to indicate creation, preservation and destruction, adding up to represent Brahman. The Tridevi is the trinity of goddess consorts for the Trimurti.

Hindu deities are the gods and goddesses in Hinduism. Deities in Hinduism are as diverse as its traditions, and a Hindu can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, even agnostic, atheistic, or humanist. The terms and epithets for deities within the diverse traditions of Hinduism vary, and include Deva, Devi, Ishvara, Ishvari, Bhagavān and Bhagavati.

Varaha is an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu, in the form of an Indian boar. Varaha is listed as third in the Dashavatara, the ten principal avatars of Vishnu.

Tripura Sundari, also known as Rajarajeshvari, Shodashi, Kamakshi, and Lalita, is a Hindu goddess, revered primarily within the Shaktism tradition and recognized as one of the ten Mahavidyas. She embodies the essence of the supreme goddess Mahadevi. Central to the Shakta texts, she is widely praised in the Lalita Sahasranama and Saundarya Lahari. In the Lalitopakhyana of the Brahmanda Purana, she is referred to as Adi Parashakti.

The following list consists of notable concepts that are derived from Hindu culture and associated cultures’ traditions, which are expressed as words in Sanskrit or other Indic languages and Dravidian languages. The main purpose of this list is to disambiguate multiple spellings, to make note of spellings no longer in use for these concepts, to define the concept in one or two lines, to make it easy for one to find and pin down specific concepts, and to provide a guide to unique concepts of Hinduism all in one place.

A shaligram, or shaligrama shila, is a fossilized stone or ammonite collected from the riverbed or banks of the Kali Gandaki, a tributary of the Gandaki River in Nepal. It is also considered a form of Vishnu within Hinduism.The Kali Gandaki river flows through sacred places such as Muktinath and Damodar Kunda, enhancing the spiritual significance of these shaligrams.

A shankha has religious ritual importance in Hinduism.

Shiva Puja in Hinduism is the way by which one worships Shiva through traditional and ancient rites with the use of mantra, tantra, yantra, kriyas, mudras, and abhishekam.

Banalinga, a stone found in nature, in the bed of the Narmada River in Madhya Pradesh state, India, is an iconic symbol of worship, based on either the scriptures or cultural traditions among the Hindus, particularly of the Shaivas and Smarta Brahmins. It is a smooth ellipsoid stone that represents a lingam, an anionic form of the deity Shiva.

In Hinduism, Adityas, refers to the offspring of Aditi, the goddess representing the infinity. The name Aditya, in the singular, is taken to refer to the sun god Surya. Generally, Adityas are twelve in number and consist of Vivasvan (Surya), Aryaman, Tvashta, Savitr, Bhaga, Dhata, Mitra, Varuna, Amsa, Pushan, Indra and Vishnu.

Hindu art encompasses the artistic traditions and styles culturally connected to Hinduism and have a long history of religious association with Hindu scriptures, rituals and worship.

Bhikshatana or Bhikshatana-murti is an aspect of the Hindu god Shiva as the "Supreme mendicant" or the "Supreme Beggar". Bhikshtana is depicted as a nude four-armed man adorned with ornaments who holds a begging bowl in his hand and is followed by demonic attendants and love-sick women.

Ekapada is the one-footed aspect of the Hindu god Shiva. This form is primarily found in South India and Orissa, but also occasionally in Rajasthan and Nepal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kalyanasundara</span> Iconographical depiction of the wedding of the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati

Kalyanasundara, also spelt as Kalyansundar and Kalyana Sundara, and known as Kalyanasundara-murti, Vaivahika-murti and Panigrahana-murti ( पाणिंग्रहण-मूर्ति), is the iconographical depiction of the wedding of the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati. The couple are often depicted performing the panigrahana ritual of a Hindu wedding, where the groom accepts the bride by taking her right hand in his.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mukhalinga</span> Lingam with one or more human faces in Hinduism

A mukhalinga or mukhalingam is a lingam represented with one or more human faces in Hindu iconography. A lingam is an aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva. Mukhalingas may be of stone or can be made of a metal sheath, which covers the normal lingam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sadasiva</span> Aspect of Hindu god Shiva as the Supreme Being

Sadasiva, is the Supreme Being in the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition of Hinduism. Sadasiva is the omnipotent, subtle, luminous absolute, the highest manifestation of Shiva. Sadasiva is believed to bestow anugraha and vilaya, or grace and obscuration of pasha, which are the fourth and fifth of the Panchakritya, or the "five holy acts" of Shiva. Sadasiva is usually depicted having five faces and ten hands, and is considered one of the 25 forms of Shiva. Shiva Agamas conclude that the lingam, especially the mukhalingam, is another form of Sadasiva.

Chaturbhuja is a concept in Hindu iconography in which a deity is depicted with four arms. Several Hindu deities are often portrayed with four arms in their iconography, featured in Hindu literature. The iconography of four arms is regarded to symbolise divinity and power, as well as dominion over the four quarters of the universe.

References

Notes

↑ Brekke, Torkel, ed. (27 June 2019). Modern Hinduism. OCLC 1106125720.
↑ Chandra, Suresh (2001). Encyclopaedia of Hindu gods and goddesses. Sarup. ISBN 81-7625-039-2. OCLC 637001628.
↑ Kanagasuntheram, R (2003). "Science and Symbolism in Saivaism (Hinduism)" (PDF). Science and Symbolism in Saivaism (Hinduism). 1: 7.
↑ Freed, Stanley A (1980). "Swastika: A new symbolic interpretation" (PDF). Rice Institute Pamphlet-Rice University Studies. 66 (1).
↑ Babary, Abrar; Zeeshan, Mahwish. "Reminiscent of Hinduism: An Insight of Katas Raj Mandir". The Explorer: Journal of Social Sciences. 1 (4): 122.
↑ www.wisdomlib.org (23 November 2008). "Linga, Liṅgā, Liṅga, Limga: 43 definitions". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
↑ Harshananda, Swami (1995). Principal Symbols of World Religions. Mylapore, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math. p. 7. ISBN 81-7120-176-8.
1 2 3 Harshananda, Swami (1995). Principal Symbols of World Religions. Mylapore, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math. p. 8. ISBN 81-7120-176-8.
1 2 3 Harshananda, Swami (1995). Principal Symbols of World Religions. Mylapore, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math. p. 9. ISBN 81-7120-176-8.
↑ "Lotus flower, Hindu God's favorite flower". Lotus Sculpture. Retrieved 5 April 2023.
↑ Sundar, Akshay; P V, Hancel; Singru, Pravin; Vathsan, Radhika (2016). "Study of Sarasvati Veena – a South Indian musical instrument using its vibro-acoustic signatures". Journal of Vibroengineering. 18 (5): 3362–3368. doi: 10.21595/jve.2016.16930 . ISSN 1392-8716.
1 2 Srinivasan, Doris (2001). "Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 121 (2): 279–280. doi:10.2307/606568. JSTOR 606568. OCLC 208705592.
↑ Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9004107584.
↑ Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. p. 325. ISBN 9004107584.
↑ "The Goddess Durga Killing the Buffalo Demon (Mahishasura Mardini)". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2012. The Met notes that with sculptural depictions of multiple-armed deities viewed by the flicker of oil lamps in a dimly lit shrine, the visual kinetic energy of their many arms are no doubt made the more powerful to the viewer by the movement of light upon the sculpture
↑ Srinivasan, Doris (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art. BRILL. pp. 157–168. ISBN 978-90-04-10758-8.

Sources

Vastu-Silpa Kosha, Encyclopedia of Hindu Temple architecture and Vastu/S.K.Ramachandara Rao, Delhi, Devine Books, (Lala Murari Lal Chharia Oriental series) ISBN 978-93-81218-51-8 (Set).
Kaasyapa shilpa shaastra: part-2- department of endowments - andhra pradesh - India.
Bhaarathiya mahashilpamu: in 16 parts - swarna subramanya kavi - 1971 TTD Govt of Andhra pradesh supported publication.

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[1] Brekke, Torkel, ed. (27 June 2019). Modern Hinduism. OCLC 1106125720.

[2] Chandra, Suresh (2001). Encyclopaedia of Hindu gods and goddesses. Sarup. ISBN 81-7625-039-2. OCLC 637001628.

[3] Kanagasuntheram, R (2003). "Science and Symbolism in Saivaism (Hinduism)" (PDF). Science and Symbolism in Saivaism (Hinduism). 1: 7.

[4] Freed, Stanley A (1980). "Swastika: A new symbolic interpretation" (PDF). Rice Institute Pamphlet-Rice University Studies. 66 (1).

[5] Babary, Abrar; Zeeshan, Mahwish. "Reminiscent of Hinduism: An Insight of Katas Raj Mandir". The Explorer: Journal of Social Sciences. 1 (4): 122.

[6] www.wisdomlib.org (23 November 2008). "Linga, Liṅgā, Liṅga, Limga: 43 definitions". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 17 August 2022.

[Harshananda,_Swami_p.7-7] Harshananda, Swami (1995). Principal Symbols of World Religions. Mylapore, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math. p. 7. ISBN 81-7120-176-8.

[Harshananda,_Swami_p.8-8] 1 2 3 Harshananda, Swami (1995). Principal Symbols of World Religions. Mylapore, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math. p. 8. ISBN 81-7120-176-8.

[Harshananda,_Swami_p.9-9] 1 2 3 Harshananda, Swami (1995). Principal Symbols of World Religions. Mylapore, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math. p. 9. ISBN 81-7120-176-8.

[10] "Lotus flower, Hindu God's favorite flower". Lotus Sculpture. Retrieved 5 April 2023.

[11] Sundar, Akshay; P V, Hancel; Singru, Pravin; Vathsan, Radhika (2016). "Study of Sarasvati Veena – a South Indian musical instrument using its vibro-acoustic signatures". Journal of Vibroengineering. 18 (5): 3362–3368. doi: 10.21595/jve.2016.16930 . ISSN 1392-8716.

[manyarms-12] 1 2 Srinivasan, Doris (2001). "Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 121 (2): 279–280. doi:10.2307/606568. JSTOR 606568. OCLC 208705592.

[13] Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9004107584.

[14] Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. p. 325. ISBN 9004107584.

[15] "The Goddess Durga Killing the Buffalo Demon (Mahishasura Mardini)". The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2012. The Met notes that with sculptural depictions of multiple-armed deities viewed by the flicker of oil lamps in a dimly lit shrine, the visual kinetic energy of their many arms are no doubt made the more powerful to the viewer by the movement of light upon the sculpture

[16] Srinivasan, Doris (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art. BRILL. pp. 157–168. ISBN 978-90-04-10758-8.

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