Aegle marmelos

Last updated

Bael
Bael (Aegle marmelos) tree at Narendrapur W IMG 4116.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Rutaceae
Subfamily: Aurantioideae
Genus: Aegle
Corrêa [2]
Species:
A. marmelos
Binomial name
Aegle marmelos
Synonyms [3]
  • Belou marmelos(L.) A.Lyons
  • Crateva marmelosL.

Aegle marmelos, commonly known as bael (or bili [4] or bhel [5] ), also Bengal quince, [3] golden apple, [3] Japanese bitter orange, [6] stone apple [7] [8] or wood apple, [6] is a species of tree native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. [3] It is present in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, [9] Sri Lanka, and Nepal as a naturalized species. [3] [9] The tree is considered to be sacred by Hindus and Buddhists.

Contents

Description

Aegle marmelos is a deciduous shrub or small to medium-sized tree, up to 13 metres (43 feet) tall with slender drooping branches and rather open, irregular crown. [10]

Bark

The bark is pale brown or grayish, smooth or finely fissured and flaking, armed with long straight spines, 1.2–2.5 centimetres (1⁄2–1 inch) singly or in pairs, often with slimy sap oozing out from cut parts. The gum is also described as a clear, gummy sap, resembling gum arabic, which exudes from wounded branches and hangs down in long strands, becoming gradually solid. It is sweet at first taste and then irritating to the throat. [8]

Leaves

The leaf is trifoliate, alternate, each leaflet 5–14 cm (2–5+1⁄2 in) x 2–6 cm (3⁄4–2+1⁄4 in), ovate with tapering or pointed tip and rounded base, untoothed or with shallow rounded teeth. Young leaves are pale green or pinkish, finely hairy while mature leaves are dark green and completely smooth. Each leaf has 4–12 pairs of side veins which are joined at the margin. [11]

Flowers

The flowers are 1.5 to 2 cm, pale green or yellowish, sweetly scented, bisexual, in short drooping unbranched clusters at the end of twigs and leaf axils. They usually appear with young leaves. The calyx is flat with 4(5) small teeth. The four or five petals of 6–8 millimetres (1⁄4–3⁄8 in) overlap in the bud. Many stamens have short filaments and pale brown, short style anthers. The ovary is bright green with an inconspicuous disc.[ citation needed ]

Fruits

The fruit typically has a diameter of between 5 and 10 cm (2 and 4 in). [12] It is globose or slightly pear-shaped with a thick, hard rind and does not split upon ripening. The woody shell is smooth and green, gray until it is fully ripe when it turns yellow. Inside are 8 to 15 or 20 sections filled with aromatic orange pulp, each section with 6 (8) to 10 (15) flattened-oblong seeds each about 1 cm long, bearing woolly hairs and each enclosed in a sac of adhesive, transparent mucilage that solidifies on drying. The exact number of seeds varies in different publications. The fruit takes about 11 months to ripen on the tree, reaching maturity in December. [12] It can reach the size of a large grapefruit or pomelo, and some are even larger. The shell is so hard it must be cracked with a hammer or machete. The fibrous yellow pulp is very aromatic. It has been described as tasting of marmalade and smelling of roses. Boning (2006) indicates that the flavor is "sweet, aromatic and pleasant, although tangy and slightly astringent in some varieties. It resembles a marmalade made, in part, with citrus and, in part, with tamarind." [13] Numerous hairy seeds are encapsulated in a slimy mucilage.

Chemistry

The bael tree contains furocoumarins, including xanthotoxol and the methyl ester of alloimperatorin, as well as flavonoids, rutin and marmesin; a number of essential oils; and, among its alkaloids, á-fargarine(=allocryptopine), O-isopentenylhalfordinol, O-methylhafordinol. [14] Aegeline (N-[2-hydroxy-2(4-methoxyphenyl) ethyl]-3-phenyl-2-propenamide) is a constituent that can be extracted from bael leaves. [15] [16]

Aeglemarmelosine, molecular formula C16H15NO2 [α]27D+7.89° (c 0.20, CHCl3), has been isolated as an orange viscous oil. [17]

Taxonomy

Bael is the only member of the monotypic genus Aegle. [9]

Habit and habitat

Trunks and leaves of Indian bael (Aegle marmelos) in West Bengal, India. Trunks and leaves of Indian bael (Aegle marmelos).jpg
Trunks and leaves of Indian bael (Aegle marmelos) in West Bengal, India.

Aegle marmelos is native across the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, and is cultivated throughout Sri Lanka, Tamilnadu, Thailand, and Malesia. [3] It occurs in dry, open forests on hills and plains at altitudes from 0–1,200 m (0–3,937 ft) with mean annual rainfall of 570–2,000 mm (22–79 in). [8] [9] It has a reputation in India for being able to grow in places that other trees cannot. It copes with a wide range of soil conditions (pH range 5–10), is tolerant of waterlogging and has an unusually wide temperature tolerance from −7–48 °C (19–118 °F). [9] It requires a pronounced dry season to give fruit.

Ecology

The tree is a larval food plant for the following two Indian Swallowtail butterflies: the lime butterfly ( Papilio demoleus ) and the common Mormon ( Papilio polytes ).[ citation needed ]

Toxicity

Aegeline is a known constituent of the bael leaf and consumed as a dietary supplement with the intent to produce weight loss. [15] [16] In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Department of Defense Armed Forces Health Surveillance Center, and Hawaii state and local health officials identified an outbreak of 97 persons with acute non-viral hepatitis that first emerged in Hawaii. Seventy-two of these persons had reported using the dietary supplement OxyElite Pro, containing aegeline, which was manufactured by the Dallas company, USPlabs. [15] [18] FDA had previously taken action against an earlier formulation of OxyElite Pro because it contained dimethylamylamine, a stimulant that FDA had determined to be an adulterant when included in dietary supplements, and could cause high blood pressure and lead to heart attacks, seizures, psychiatric disorders, and death. [18] USPlabs subsequently reformulated this product without informing FDA or submitting the required safety data for a new dietary ingredient. [18]

Doctors at the Liver Center at The Queen's Medical Center investigating the first cases in Hawaii reported that between May and September 2013, eight previously healthy individuals presented themselves at their center suffering from a drug-induced liver injury. [15] [19] All of these patients had been using the reformulated OxyElite Pro, which they had purchased from different sources, and which had different lot numbers and expiration dates, at doses within the manufacturer's recommendation. [15] [19] Three of these patients developed fulminant liver failure, two underwent urgent liver transplantation, and one died. [15] [19] The number of such cases ultimately rose to 44 in Hawaii. [15] [19] In January 2014, leaders from the Queen's Liver Center informed state lawmakers that they were almost certain that aegeline was the agent responsible for these cases, [20] but the mechanism of how aegeline may damage the liver has not been isolated. [15]

Uses

Leaves used in the worship of a lingam, the icon of Shiva Aikya Linga in Varanasi.jpg
Leaves used in the worship of a lingam, the icon of Shiva

Culinary

Rich in vitamin C, [12] the fruits can be eaten either fresh from trees or after being dried [21] and produced into candy, toffee, pulp powder or nectar. [9] If fresh, the juice is strained and sweetened to make a drink similar to lemonade. [12] It can be made into sharbat, also called as Bela pana, a beverage. Bela Pana made in Odisha has fresh cheese, milk, water, fruit pulp, sugar, crushed black pepper, and ice. Bæl pana, a drink made of the pulp with water, sugar, and citron juice, is mixed, left to stand a few hours, strained, and put on ice. One large bael fruit may yield five or six liters of sharbat. If the fruit is to be dried, it is usually sliced and sun-dried. The hard leathery slices are then immersed in water. The leaves and small shoots are eaten as salad greens. Bael fruits are of dietary use and the fruit pulp is used to prepare delicacies like murabba, puddings and juices.[ citation needed ]

Traditional medicine

The leaves, bark, roots, fruits, and seeds are used in traditional medicine to treat various illnesses. [9]

In culture

Bael is considered to be one of the sacred trees of Hindus, [22] (known in Sanskrit as बिल्व bilva [23] ), and thus they are used in Hindu rites. [24] [25] Earliest evidence of the religious importance of bael appears in the Sri Sukta of the Rigveda, which reveres this plant as the residence of goddess Lakshmi, the deity of wealth and prosperity. [26] Bael trees are also considered an incarnation of the goddess Sati. [27] Bael trees can be usually seen near Hindu temples and home gardens. [28] It is believed that Shiva is fond of bael trees, to a point of having earned the epithet बिल्वदण्ड Bilvadaṇḍa or "bel-staffed". [23] Its leaves and fruit still play a main role in his worship, because the leaf's trifoliate shape is seen to symbolise his trident. Another belief is that the trifoliate shape of Bael leaf is symbolic representation of three eyes of Lord Shiva. [4] [29]

In the traditional practice of the Hindu and Buddhist religions by people of the Newar culture of Nepal, the bael tree is part of a fertility ritual for girls known as the Bel Bibaaha . Girls are "married" to the bael fruit; as long as the fruit is kept safe and never cracks, the girl can never become widowed, even if her human husband dies. This is a ritual that guarantees the high status of widows in the Newar community compared to other women in Nepal. [30]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rutaceae</span> Family of flowering plants in the order Sapindales

The Rutaceae is a family, commonly known as the rue or citrus family, of flowering plants, usually placed in the order Sapindales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persimmon</span> Edible fruit

The persimmon is the edible fruit of a number of species of trees in the genus Diospyros. The most widely cultivated of these is the kaki persimmon, Diospyros kaki – Diospyros is in the family Ebenaceae, and a number of non-persimmon species of the genus are grown for ebony timber. In 2022, China produced 77% of the world total of persimmons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guava</span> Tropical fruit

Guava is a common tropical fruit cultivated in many tropical and subtropical regions. The common guava Psidium guajava is a small tree in the myrtle family (Myrtaceae), native to Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean and northern South America. The name guava is also given to some other species in the genus Psidium such as strawberry guava and to the pineapple guava, Feijoa sellowiana. In 2019, 55 million tonnes of guavas were produced worldwide, led by India with 45% of the total. Botanically, guavas are berries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tamarind</span> Leguminous tree bearing edible fruit

Tamarind is a leguminous tree bearing edible fruit that is indigenous to tropical Africa and naturalized in Asia. The genus Tamarindus is monotypic, meaning that it contains only this species. It belongs to the family Fabaceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jackfruit</span> Species of plant

The jackfruit is a species of tree in the fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family (Moraceae). The jackfruit is the largest tree fruit, reaching as much as 55 kg in weight, 90 cm in length, and 50 cm (20 in) in diameter. A mature jackfruit tree produces some 200 fruits per year, with older trees bearing up to 500 fruits in a year. The jackfruit is a multiple fruit composed of hundreds to thousands of individual flowers, and the fleshy petals of the unripe fruit are eaten.

<i>Morinda citrifolia</i> Species of plant

Morinda citrifolia is a fruit-bearing tree in the coffee family, Rubiaceae, native to Southeast Asia and Australasia, which was spread across the Pacific by Polynesian sailors. The species is now cultivated throughout the tropics and widely naturalised. There are over 100 names for this fruit across different regions, including great morinda, Indian mulberry, noni, beach mulberry, vomit fruit, awl tree, and rotten cheese fruit.

<i>Mammea americana</i> Species of tree

Mammea americana, commonly known as mammee, mammee apple, mamey, mamey apple, Santo Domingo apricot, tropical apricot, or South American apricot, is an evergreen tree of the family Calophyllaceae, whose fruit is edible. It has also been classified as belonging to the family Guttiferae Juss. (1789), which would make it a relative of the mangosteen.

<i>Eugenia uniflora</i> Species of flowering plant in the myrtle family Myrtaceae

Eugenia uniflora, the pitanga, Suriname cherry, Brazilian cherry, Cayenne cherry, cerisier carré, monkimonki kersie,ñangapirí, or shimarucu is a flowering plant in the family Myrtaceae, native to tropical South America’s east coast, ranging from Suriname, French Guiana to southern Brazil, as well as Uruguay and parts of Paraguay and Argentina. It is often used in gardens as a hedge or screen. The tree was introduced to Bermuda for ornamental purposes but is now out of control and listed as an invasive species. The tree has also been introduced to Florida.

<i>Couroupita guianensis</i> Species of flowering plant

Couroupita guianensis, known by a variety of common names including cannonball tree, is a deciduous tree in the flowering plant family Lecythidaceae. It is native to the tropical forests of Central and South America, and it is cultivated in many other tropical areas throughout the world because of its fragrant flowers and large fruits, which are brownish grey. There are potential medicinal uses for many parts of Couroupita guianensis, and the tree has cultural and religious significance in South and Southeast Asia. In Sri Lanka and India, the cannonball tree has been widely misidentified as the Sal tree, after its introduction to the island by the British in 1881, and has been included as a common item in Buddhist temples as a result.

<i>Canarium ovatum</i> Species of flowering plant

Canarium ovatum, the pili, is a species of tropical tree belonging to the genus Canarium. It is one of approximately 600 species in the family Burseraceae. C. ovatum are native to the Philippines. They are commercially cultivated in the Philippines for their edible nuts and is believed to be indigenous to that country. The fruit and tree are often vulgarized with the umbrella term of "Java almond" which mixes multiple species of the same genus, Canarium.

<i>Moringa oleifera</i> Species of flowering tree

Moringa oleifera is a fast-growing, drought-resistant tree of the family Moringaceae, native to the Indian subcontinent and used extensively in South and Southeast Asia. Common names include moringa, drumstick tree, horseradish tree, or malunggay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sacred tree</span> Tree which a community deems to hold religious significance

A sacred tree or holy tree is a tree which is considered to be sacred, or worthy of spiritual respect or reverence. Such trees appear throughout world history in various cultures including the ancient Hindu mythology, Greek, Celtic and Germanic mythologies. They also continue to hold profound meaning in contemporary culture in places like Japan (shinboku), Korea, India, and the Philippines, among others. Tree worship is core part of religions which include aspects of animism as core elements of their belief, which is the belief that trees, forests, rivers, mountains, etc have a life force.

<i>Frangula purshiana</i> Species of buckhorn shrub

Frangula purshiana is a species of plant in the family Rhamnaceae. It is native to western North America from southern British Columbia south to central California, and eastward to northwestern Montana.

<i>Limonia acidissima</i> Species of tree

Limonia acidissima is the only species within the monotypic genus Limonia. Common names for the species in English include wood-apple and elephant-apple. It is sometimes also called monkey fruit.

Wood apple is a common name for several trees of Aurantioideae with edible fruits and may refer to:

<i>Borassus flabellifer</i> Palmyra palm, toddy palm

Borassus flabellifer, commonly known as doub palm, palmyra palm, tala or tal palm, toddy palm, lontar palm, wine palm, or ice apple, is a fan palm native to South Asia and Southeast Asia. It is reportedly naturalized in Socotra.

Commiphora africana, commonly called African myrrh, is a small deciduous tree belonging to the Burseraceae, a family akin to the Anacardiaceae, occurring widely over sub-Saharan Africa in Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Chad, Eswatini, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Senegal, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. On sandy soils this species sometimes forms pure stands, deserving consideration as a plant community or association.

<i>Detarium microcarpum</i> Species of flowering plant

Detarium microcarpum, commonly known as sweet detar, sweet dattock or tallow tree, is an underutilized species of tree legume that grows naturally in the drier regions of West and Central Africa. It has a wide range of uses due to its medicinal properties, edible fruit and hardwood, which is used as fuel. This makes it valuable and appreciated by local communities, but further research and effort are needed for its domestication.

<i>Syzygium alternifolium</i> Species of flowering plant

Syzygium alternifolium is a species of plant in the family Myrtaceae. It is native to North Arcot, Cuddapah, Kurnool, and the Nagari hills, in eastern Chittoor district, India. It has alternate leaves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sacred groves of Biodiversity Park, Visakhapatnam</span>

The sacred groves is a zone of Biodiversity Park, Visakhapatnam located in the premises of Rani Chandramani Devi Government Hospital. It has more than 100 sacred plant species, which are medicinal herbs with religious importance. Many sacred plants are becoming rare and endangered. Hence they are to be reared, protected, and conserved. The zone was inaugurated on February 5, 2017, by Kambhampati Hari Babu, a member of parliament from Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh.

References

  1. ↑ Plummer, J. (2020). Aegle marmelos. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T156233789A156238207. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T156233789A156238207.en. Downloaded on 07 March 2021.
  2. ↑ "genus Aegle". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) online database. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Taxon: Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa". GRIN Global, National Plant Germplasm System, US Department of Agriculture. 19 September 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
  4. 1 2 "FOI search results". flowersofindia.net. Archived from the original on 12 August 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
  5. ↑ Wilder, G.P. (1907), Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands, Hawaiian Gazette, ISBN   9781465583093
  6. 1 2 "M.M.P.N.D. - Sorting Aegle names". unimelb.edu.au. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
  7. ↑ "Bael: Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa". Philippine Medicinal Plants.
  8. 1 2 3 Orwa, C (2009). "Aegle marmelos" (PDF). Agroforestree Database:a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 May 2016.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Misra KK (1999). "Bael". NewCROP, the New Crop Resource Online Program, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University, W. Lafayette, IN. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
  10. ↑ Gardner, Simon (2007). Field guide to forest trees of Northern Thailand. Bangkok: Kobfai Publishing Project. p. 102. ISBN   978-974-8367-29-3.
  11. ↑ G. S, GUGHE, PADEKAR. "To Study Anthaelmintic Actiity of Aegle Marmalos" (PDF). International Journal of Research in Engineering and Science (IJRES). 11 (6). eISSN   2320-9364. ISSN   2320-9356.
  12. 1 2 3 4 The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants. United States Department of the Army. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. 2009. p. 23. ISBN   978-1-60239-692-0. OCLC   277203364.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  13. ↑ Boning, Charles (2006). Florida's Best Fruiting Plants: Native and Exotic Trees, Shrubs, and Vines. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press, Inc. p. 35.
  14. ↑ Rasadah Mat Ali; Zainon Abu Samah; Nik Musaadah Mustapha; Norhara Hussein (2010). Aegle marmelos (L.): In ASEAN Herbal and Medicinal Plants (page 107) (PDF). Jakarta, Indonesia: Association of Southeast Asian Nations. p. 43. ISBN   978-979-3496-92-4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 June 2017.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Chatham-Stephens K, Taylor E, Chang A, et al. (2017). "Hepatotoxicity associated with weight loss or sports dietary supplements, including OxyELITE Pro™ - United States, 2013". Drug Test Anal. 9 (1): 68–74. doi:10.1002/dta.2036. PMC   5579712 . PMID   27367536.
  16. 1 2 Avula, B; Chittiboyina, A. G; Wang, Y. H; et al. (2016). "Simultaneous Determination of Aegeline and Six Coumarins from Different Parts of the Plant Aegle marmelos Using UHPLC-PDA-MS and Chiral Separation of Aegeline Enantiomers Using HPLC-ToF-MS". Planta Medica. 82 (6): 580–8. doi:10.1055/s-0042-103160. PMID   27054911. S2CID   205000525.
  17. ↑ Laphookhieo, Surat (2011). "Chemical constituents from Aegle marmelos". J. Braz. Chem. Soc. [online]. 22: 176–178.
  18. 1 2 3 "FDA Investigation Summary: Acute Hepatitis Illnesses Linked to Certain OxyElite Pro Products". US Food and Drug Administration. 30 July 2014. Archived from the original on 14 November 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
  19. 1 2 3 4 Roytman MM, Pörzgen P, Lee CL, et al. (August 2014). "Outbreak of severe hepatitis linked to weight-loss supplement OxyELITE Pro". Am J Gastroenterol. 109 (8): 1296–8. doi:10.1038/ajg.2014.159. PMID   25091255. S2CID   28252720.
  20. ↑ Daysong, Rick (January 28, 2014). "Months after recall, new OxyElite Pro illnesses reported". Hawaii News Now. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
  21. ↑ Hazra, Sudipta Kumar (2020). "Characterization of phytochemicals, minerals and in vitro medicinal activities of bael (Aegle marmelos L.) pulp and differently dried edible leathers". Heliyon. 6 (10): e05382. Bibcode:2020Heliy...605382H. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05382 . PMC   7610326 . PMID   33163665.
  22. ↑ Panda, H (2002). Medicinal Plants Cultivation & Their Uses. Asia Pacific Business Press Inc. p. 159. ISBN   9788178330969.
  23. 1 2 Monier-Williams, Monier (1981). "बिल bil". A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi, Varanasi, Patna: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 684.
  24. ↑ Peg, Streep (2003). Spiritual Gardening: Creating Sacred Space Outdoors. New World Library. ISBN   9781930722248.
  25. ↑ Bakhru, HK (1995). Foods That Heal. Orient Paperbacks. pp. 28–30. ISBN   9788122200331.
  26. ↑ The Astrological Magazine, Volume 92. Raman Publications. 2003. p. 48.
  27. ↑ The Handbook of Tibetan Buddhist Symbols. Shambhala Publications. 2003-10-14. ISBN   9780834824232.
  28. ↑ S.M. Jain, K. Ishii (2012). Micropropagation of Woody Trees and Fruits Volume 75 of Forestry Sciences. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN   9789401001250.
  29. ↑ Lim, T. K. (2012). Edible Medicinal And Non-Medicinal Plants: Volume 4, F0000000000ruits Volume 4 of Edible Medicinal and Non-medicinal Plants: Fruits. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 613. ISBN   9789400740532.
  30. ↑ Gutschow, Niels; Michaels, Axel & Bau, Christian (2008). "The Girl's Hindu Marriage to the Bel Fruit: Ihi and The Girl's Buddhist Marriage to the Bel Fruit: Ihi". Growing Up—Hindu and Buddhist Initiation Ritual among Newar Children in Bhaktapur, Nepal. Wiesbaden, GER: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 93–173. ISBN   978-3447057523.

Commons-logo.svg Media related to Aegle marmelos at Wikimedia Commons

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.