Alcohol use among college students

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Experts and governments have warned and discouraged a few alcoholic beverages including caffeinated alcoholic drinks, alcopop, and borg (pictured), that often makes young people binge drink. SpongeBorg SquarePants.jpg
Experts and governments have warned and discouraged a few alcoholic beverages including caffeinated alcoholic drinks, alcopop, and borg (pictured), that often makes young people binge drink.

Many students attending colleges, universities, and other higher education institutions consume alcoholic beverages. The laws and social culture around this practice vary by country and institution type, and within an institution, some students may drink heavily whereas others may not drink at all. In the United States, drinking tends to be particularly associated with fraternities.

Contents

Alcohol abuse among college students refers to unhealthy alcohol drinking behaviors by college and university students. While the legal drinking age varies by country, the high number of underage students that consume alcohol has presented many problems and consequences for universities. The causes of alcohol abuse tend to be peer pressure, fraternity or sorority involvement, and stress. College students who abuse alcohol can suffer from health concerns, poor academic performance or legal consequences. Prevention and treatment include campus counseling, stronger enforcement of underage drinking or changing the campus culture.

Definitions

Binge drinking

Members of a German student corps drinking, Duchy of Brunswick, 1837 Corps Brunsviga Gottingen - 1837.jpg
Members of a German student corps drinking, Duchy of Brunswick, 1837

Binge drinking occurs when students drink large amounts of alcohol in a relatively short space of time in order to feel the full effects of alcohol consumption. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) [1] defines binge drinking as a pattern of drinking that brings a person's blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 percent or above. [2] BAC is the measure of alcohol in one's bloodstream; a BAC of 0.08, therefore, means that 0.08% of the bloodstream consists of alcohol. [3] This is usually seen when men consume five or more drinks, and when women consume four or more drinks in a two-hour time period. Factors that can affect a person's BAC include body weight, biological sex, medications, the number of drinks consumed, and the time during which they have been consumed. [3]

Most people younger than age 21 who drink alcohol report binge drinking. [4] The rates of college students binge drinking in the United States have fluctuated for the past years. [5] In college, over 50% of students take part in binge drinking, while 80% of college students report having consumed alcohol during college. [6] Over half of universities' student bodies consist of those under the legal drinking age of 21. [7] Underage drinking is when people below the legal drinking age consume alcohol. This fluctuates for every country: 21 in the United States, 18 in the United Kingdom. [7]

Young adults who participate in binge drinking experience higher rates of physical and sexual assault, and unwanted, unplanned, and unprotected sexual activity. [8] There are also links between heavy alcohol consumption and depression. [9]

The motivations among young students have changed as well. In recent years, more students are drinking with the intended purpose of getting drunk. [10]

Background

The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism reported in 2012, that more than 80% of college students drink alcohol, with estimated 40% report binge drinking in the past two weeks, and about 25% report having academic consequences because of their drinking. [11] 56% of students reported binge drinking once a week. [12] In comparison, the comparable figure of alcoholism for American Indian and Alaskan Native youth is approximately 80 percent. [13]

Individual and environmental factors for experiencing alcohol-related consequences have been identified such as drinking during high-risk periods, such as spring break, or belonging to specific student subgroups (e.g., Greek organizations). [14] Drinking throughout high school also played a role, suggesting that binge drinking starts earlier than college for some. [15]

Statistics

Drinking alcohol is a very common thing for both underage and of age. Though, there are some different statistics for men vs women and underage vs above age. From Wechsler in 2002, we get some numbers about different alcohol consumption statistics. "Although underage college students are less likely to be drinkers then their college peers aged over 21 years of age (77% vs. 86% past-year consumption of any alcohol, odds ratio [OR]=56%), they were more likely to report that they typically engaged in binge drinking on occasions when they did consume alcohol (58% men and 32% women vs 42% men and 21% women; men OR = 1.93, women OR = 1.85), where binge drinking was defined as five or more drinks in a sitting for men and for our more drinks in a sitting for women" (Martinez J.A. et al. 2007). Though it is highly illegal to consume alcohol under the age of 21, it is highly popular to consume and use a fake ID to purchase it.

Causes

Greek life

A survey taken of one national chapter proved that 97% of their members were drinkers, and 64% of them took part in binge drinking. [16] This is higher than the usual college average of 80% drinkers and 50% binge drinkers. [6] Currently there are over 12,000 fraternity or sorority chapters in the United States with over 750,000 members which raises concerns for student college life at universities. A study showed that members who were part of a fraternity reported two or more symptoms of alcohol use disorder (AUD) at a rate of 45 for every 100 participants. [17] This number was greater than other participants with the average around 31 per 100 participants. [17] The same change was also seen in women who were part of a sorority with 26.4% of them having symptoms of AUD while close to 18% of other women felt the same effects. [17]

Low-cost alcohol

A homebrewing kit consisting of hopped malt extract, yeast and instructions BREWFERM Pils Beer Homebrewing Kit.jpg
A homebrewing kit consisting of hopped malt extract, yeast and instructions

Research indicates that the abundance of alcohol retailers and the availability of inexpensive alcoholic beverages are linked to heavy alcohol consumption among college students. [18] There is a lot of stigma surrounding "broke college students" though could that be caused by college students' alcoholism? It is highly doable to acquire cheaper liquor and drinks, but if students are consistently binge drinking, it can add up and weigh down their wallet. In an article, How Much College Students Spend on Alcohol, a lot of statistics are given to show how many college students drink, how much they're drinking and how much they're spending on alcohol. "80% of students drink alcohol, that's 17 million college students or 2 times the population of NYC. 50% of students who drink binge drink that's 8.5 million college students or more than the entire population of Virginia. 88% of student athletes report using alcohol. Average drinks per week: 4 drinks for female college students, 5 drinks for college freshman, 9 drinks for male college students. The average college student spends $500/year that's $42/ month on alcohol. The average undergrad is drunk for 10.6 hours a week." (White J, 2017).

Peer pressure

In 2001, there were 1,717 unintentional deaths from the consumption of alcohol or other substances, which raised concerns about the excessive use of alcohol. [19] There are many causes of excessive drinking on college campuses. Many students report they felt peer pressured to consume large amounts of alcohol. Peer pressure may occur in multiple forms. One of the more indirect forms of peer pressure is social modelling. [20] In this method, the more "popular" people from a group could be consuming alcohol, and pressure others to drink in excess to fit in and be part of the larger group. [20]

Stress

Stressors could include academic stress, family and relationship stress etc. Penn State released a study that showed that the more daily stressors students have in their lives, the more likely students are to engage in alcohol. [21] In the same study it was there was also a direct correlation with drinking to cope with stress and AUDs. There was a higher percentage of students who drank to cope with stress who developed AUDs through their professional career. [21]

Societal influences

The rise of social media platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, and streaming platforms like Netflix show advertisements for alcoholic beverages. [20] These parties carry a stigma as everyone in the pictures and movies is seen to be having a great time. This encourages students, both in college and high school, to be more tempted to try alcohol or other substances as they too would like to be part of these events and not excluded from such "great" events. [20] The National Longitudinal Survey conducted an analysis in 1997 which showed that a 28% reduction in alcohol advertising theoretically will reduce adolescent alcohol participation by 2–3% and participation in binge drinking from 12% to between 11%–8%. [22] Another source of social media related influence originates in alcohol-related posts on social media platforms made by important peers and social network members. There is a positive correlation between having a social network circle that presents more alcohol-related social media postings and the number of drinks that are consumed per week. This correlation also extends to a higher frequency of alcohol use and having more alcohol related consequences, especially among college students who use social media more than any other age group. [23]

Fake ID's

In college, students who enjoy alcohol and partying, the two main places they'll go are fraternity house parties or bars. Frat houses are easy to get into, the only thing students need to get in is maybe their university's student id card and they're in, no matter their age. To get into bars on the other hand, you need to be 21, unless you're a college student with a fake ID. Though, if students are going to a frat, the chances are high that they're drinking. How are underage frat party attendees getting their alcoholic beverages? More than likely a friend of age is purchasing it for them, a parent, or they have a fake ID and go to the beer distributor to purchase it themselves. Not only using but owning a fake ID is a serious crime and can get an underage student into serious legal trouble. IN 2002 Wechsler said "Despite legal restrictions of on-premise and off-premise alcohol sales to minors, 50% of underage college students reported that they used false identification (fake ID) for the purpose of obtaining alcohol."(Martinez J.A.).

Effects

Alcoholism

As high as 40% of college students could now be considered alcoholics, as defined by the next edition psychiatry's diagnostic manual, but many of these individuals would be regarded as having only a mild drinking problem. [5] Most college binge drinkers and drug users do not develop lifelong problems. [24] [25]

Academic performance

College students who engage in binge drinking tend to have lower grades than those who do not. [26] According to a study by The Center for the Study of Collegiate Mental Health at Pennsylvania State, students who abuse alcohol showed a clear correlation with a lower GPA. [26] As the frequency of binge drinking increases, the GPA decreases. [26] Another study showed increased alcohol abuse directly links to poor motivation for school and poor academic performance. [27] When attending college/university, students are there to succeed academically to obtain their diploma to pursue their desired career. One of the factors that comes into play when deciding on a school o to attend is the social scene. Though students are there for academics they do still want to have a fun social life. This can turn into a negative though if students are being too social or drinking too much because it can take over their life and negatively affect how they perform academically. The Alcohol Rehab Guide expresses the consequences of binge drinking and alcoholism and how it can negatively impact students academic performance, "Excessive alcohol consumption can take a toll on a students academics. Drinking may even become a priority over attending classes, completing homework and studying for exams. An estimated one in every four college students admit to having poor grades or other academic problems because of their drinking behavior. A lack of effort in school can make a difference in whether a student passes or fails a class. It can cost thousands of dollars to retake a course or change majors due to bad grades. In addition, failing classes will push back a student's graduation, taking more time and money to complete the degree program." (Galbicsek C. 2023).

Health concerns

The consequences of binge drinking include alcohol poisoning, nausea and vomiting, unintentional injuries, increased risk of unplanned pregnancies and violent behavior. [28] Each year, 1,825 college students die from alcohol-related unintentional injuries, including motor-vehicle crashes, 696,000 college students are assaulted by another student who has been drinking, and 97,000 college students report an alcohol-related sexual assault or date rape. [29] For students under the legal drinking age of 21 in the United States, alcohol use can result in future unhealthy behavior and impaired brain development as early college age is when the brain is developing. [29] According to studies by McLean Hospital, early alcohol drinking indicates serious problems with alcohol later in life. [29]

The legal consequences stemming from underage drinking can have severe impacts on a student's life and career. [30] Students who get caught drinking alcohol underage face various repercussions from loss of driver's license, fines, community service, or even jail time. [30] For those of age who are supplying minors with alcohol could also face severe consequences from being charged with a criminal offense to being arrested. [30] Individual schools might also place their own sanctions on students who drink underage that can range from being on probation to expulsion. [31] Many schools also have strict regulations as to having alcohol or consuming alcohol regardless of age in university owned housing. [32] [33] Doing so may result in warnings, probation, and ultimately removal from university owned housing and expulsion from university owned housing in the future. [34]

At certain U.S. colleges, campus police will conduct bar raids by taking a certain number of people from the bar to catch underage students drinking. For example, at the University of Illinois, police will give tickets for underage students for just being an arm's length distance from an alcoholic beverage. At other big universities, such as University of Wisconsin-Madison, students have to pay a ticket of more than $250 and also pay for classes about the problems of drinking. [35] Another major consequence is one's chances for college admission. If an individual has pictures on social media of them drinking or has a record with the police for underage drinking, this will cause a bad image of them and will cause issues when applying to schools. [36]

Though not necessarily legal, college drinking has become so common that there are less legal consequences for students caught drinking as compared to non-campus drinking events. Students are encouraged to prioritize safe drinking over non-drinking. Many schools have transportation services that are specific to drinking so the students are transported safely. [37]

Student misconduct

Alcohol use is involved in over half the sexual assault cases on college campuses. [38] For the most part, it is the men being intoxicated that commit acts of sexual assault. [38] In addition, sexual assaults involving alcohol tend to occur between a man and a woman that are not familiar to each other. [38] The very nature of being intoxicated from alcohol tends to make men feel more powerful and privileged, leading to an increase in risk that the man will sexually assault a woman. [38] Furthermore, a professor from Washington State University found through a study that men involved in heavy alcohol consumption are more likely to display acts of sexual aggression. [39]

Underage Drinking

Underage alcohol consumption is a serious public health issue that has many risks to young people. It not only threatens or could potentially impact their immediate health but also has long-term effects that can harm their development, school performance, and social skills. Adolescents (children) often go through many changes, but some of these changes might involve alcohol problems. Parents, teachers, and caregivers should be aware of the signs that a young person may be struggling with alcohol use. Common warning signs include mood swings, dropping grades, rebellious/destructive behavior, low energy, and losing interest in things they once enjoyed. Physical signs such as smelling of alcohol, slurred speech, or trouble with coordination/hand-eye coordination are also important to notice. Identifying these warning signs early can help in getting the needed help and/or support, which may prevent more serious alcohol-related issues later on in life. Preventing underage drinking requires active involvement from parents and educators around younger people. "Research shows that children of actively involved parents are less likely to drink alcohol. However, if parents provide alcohol to their kids (even small amounts), have positive attitudes about drinking, and engage in alcohol misuse, adolescents have an increased risk of misusing alcohol" (National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2023). Open conversations about the dangers of alcohol are very important and needed. Parents can play a big role in prevention by talking about the risks, knowing their children's friends, and looking over events where alcohol may be involved. Supporting healthy activities like sports or arts for example, can provide young people with safer and more positive alternatives to drinking. Underage alcohol use shows serious health risks and can lead to long lasting negative effects on young people's lives. By realizing and understanding the dangers, recognizing warning signs, and putting effective prevention ideas in place, we can protect youth from the harmful consequences of alcohol. Increased awareness and better policies are crucial in addressing this issue. By working together, parents, educators, and communities, we can create a healthier and safer environment for young people, allowing them to succeed in life without the risks associated with alcohol use.

Prevention and treatment

Campus counseling

Offering campus counseling is one way to prevent students from developing long term consequences. [40] Monitoring and prohibiting the use of fake IDs on or around campus is another way to prevent alcohol abuse amongst students. [41] According to recent statistics, the ownership of a fake ID increased from around 12% prior to entering college to about 32% by the end of sophomore year. [40] In addition, 51% of students say that it is incredibly easy to obtain alcohol on and off campus. [42] Fostering a campus culture that fights against binge drinking is another useful preventative method. According to a study done in 2006, 59% of incoming freshman enter college as non-drinkers. [43] A little more than a month into the first semester, 44% of non-drinkers begin drinking. [44] A way to combat the abuse of alcohol, especially among first year students who are not considered to be drinkers, is to create more spaces and events that do not include alcohol. [44] Professionals can help students who might have drinking problems. Students can share why they drink when they should be studying. Whatever the reasons, the counselor can help them reduce or eliminate drinking. Counseling can prevent students from drinking by educating them about the risks and consequences of binge drinking on college campuses. While college counseling can be beneficial, it is essential to consider its advantages and disadvantages. Studies have shown that college counseling can help students with their drinking problems, but the effects may only be temporary. According to recent research by the American Psychological Association, three out of four students may return to their previous level of drinking. [45] Therefore, it is crucial to be aware of both the benefits and limitations of college counseling when dealing with alcohol-related issues among students. Additionally, it is equally essential for students to be mindful of the resources and support available to them through their college to address alcohol-related problems.

Screening for Substance Use

Proactive screening for substance use is important for early intervention and education, given the reluctance of many young adults to seek help for these issues. Integrating substance use screening into routine assessments allows clinicians to identify individuals who may benefit from support in a neutral manner. [46]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcoholism</span> Problematic excessive alcohol consumption

Alcoholism is the continued drinking of alcohol despite it causing problems. Some definitions require evidence of dependence and withdrawal. Problematic use of alcohol has been mentioned in the earliest historical records. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated there were 283 million people with alcohol use disorders worldwide as of 2016. The term alcoholism was first coined in 1852, but alcoholism and alcoholic are sometimes considered stigmatizing and to discourage seeking treatment, so diagnostic terms such as alcohol use disorder or alcohol dependence are often used instead in a clinical context.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol abuse</span> Substance abuse of alcoholic beverages

Alcohol abuse encompasses a spectrum of alcohol-related substance abuse, ranging from the consumption of more than 2 drinks per day on average for men, or more than 1 drink per day on average for women, to binge drinking or alcohol use disorder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drinking culture</span> Aspect of human behavior

Drinking culture is the set of traditions and social behaviours that surround the consumption of alcoholic beverages as a recreational drug and social lubricant. Although alcoholic beverages and social attitudes toward drinking vary around the world, nearly every civilization has independently discovered the processes of brewing beer, fermenting wine, and distilling spirits, among other practices. Many countries have developed their own regional cultures based on unique traditions around the fermentation and consumption of alcohol, which may also be known as a beer culture, wine culture etc. after a particularly prominent type of drink.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Minimum Drinking Age Act</span> 1984 U.S. law which indirectly raised the nationwide minimum drinking age to 20

The National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 was passed by the United States Congress and was later signed into law by President Ronald Reagan on July 17, 1984. The act would punish any state that allowed persons under 21 years to purchase alcoholic beverages by reducing its annual federal highway apportionment by 10 percent. The law was later amended, lowering the penalty to 8 percent from fiscal year 2012 and beyond.

Alcohol education is the practice of disseminating disinformation about the effects of alcohol on health, as well as society and the family unit. It was introduced into the public schools by temperance organizations such as the Woman's Christian Temperance Union in the late 19th century. Initially, alcohol education focused on how the consumption of alcoholic beverages affected society, as well as the family unit. In the 1930s, this came to also incorporate education pertaining to alcohol's effects on health. For example, even light and moderate alcohol consumption increases cancer risk in individuals. Organizations such as the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism in the United States were founded to promulgate alcohol education alongside those of the temperance movement, such as the American Council on Alcohol Problems.

Alcohol has a number of effects on health. Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain, with increased risk of several types of cancer and alcohol use disorder. Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. There is an increased risk of developing an alcohol use disorder for teenagers while their brain is still developing. Adolescents who drink have a higher probability of injury including death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States</span>

Although the minimum legal age to purchase alcohol is 21 in all U.S. states and most territories, the legal details for consumption vary greatly. Although some states completely ban alcohol usage for people under 18, the majority have exceptions that permit consumption.

Recommendations for consumption of the drug alcohol vary from recommendations to be alcohol-free to daily or weekly drinking "safe limits" or maximum intakes. Many governmental agencies and organizations have issued guidelines. These recommendations concerning maximum intake are distinct from any legal restrictions, for example countries with drunk driving laws or countries that have prohibited alcohol. To varying degrees, these recommendations are also distinct from the scientific evidence, such as the short-term and long-term effects of alcohol consumption.

0-0-1-3 is an alcohol abuse prevention program developed in 2004 at Francis E. Warren Air Force Base based on research by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism regarding binge drinking in college students. This program was a command-led collaboration between unit leaders, base agencies, and base personnel that utilized a three-tiered approach: (1) identify and assist high risk drinkers; (2) Develop a base culture, supportive of safe and responsible behaviors, including recreational options; and (3) Partnering with the broader community to promote alcohol prevention.

A drug-related blackout is a phenomenon caused by the intake of any substance or medication in which short-term and long-term memory creation is impaired, therefore causing a complete inability to recall the past. Blackouts are frequently described as having effects similar to that of anterograde amnesia, in which the subject cannot recall any events after the event that caused amnesia.

The impact of alcohol on aging is multifaceted. Evidence shows that alcoholism or alcohol abuse can cause both accelerated (or premature) aging – in which symptoms of aging appear earlier than normal – and exaggerated aging, in which the symptoms appear at the appropriate time but in a more exaggerated form. The effects of alcohol use disorder on the aging process include hypertension, cardiac dysrhythmia, cancers, gastrointestinal disorders, neurocognitive deficits, bone loss, and emotional disturbances especially depression. On the other hand, research also shows that drinking moderate amounts of alcohol may protect healthy adults from developing coronary heart disease. The American Heart Association cautions people not to start drinking, if you are not already drinking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Binge drinking</span> Form of excessive alcohol intake

Binge drinking, or heavy episodic drinking, is drinking alcoholic beverages with an intention of becoming intoxicated by heavy consumption of alcohol over a short period of time, but definitions vary considerably.

A high-functioning alcoholic (HFA) is a person who maintains jobs and relationships while exhibiting alcoholism.

Binge drinking is the practice of consuming excessive amounts of alcohol in a short period of time. Due to the idiosyncrasies of the human body, the exact amount of alcohol that would constitute binge drinking differs among individuals. The definitions of binge drinking are also nuanced across cultures and population subgroups. For example, many studies use gender-specific measures of binge drinking. The epidemiology of binge drinking likewise differs across cultures and population subgroups.

The legal drinking age varies from country to country. In the United States, the legal drinking age is currently 21. To curb excessive alcohol consumption by younger people, instead of raising the drinking age, other countries have raised the prices of alcohol beverages and encouraged the general public to drink less. Setting a legal drinking age of 21 is designed to discourage reckless alcohol consumption by youth, limiting consumption to those who are more mature, who can be expected to make reasonable and wise decisions when it comes to drinking.

Drunkorexia is a colloquialism for anorexia or bulimia combined with an alcohol use disorder. The term is generally used to denote the utilization of extreme weight control methods to compensate for planned binge drinking. Research on the combination of an eating disorder and binge drinking has primarily focused on college-aged women, though the phenomenon has also been noted among young men. Studies suggest that individuals engage in this combination of self-imposed malnutrition and binge drinking to avoid weight gain from alcohol, to save money for purchasing alcohol, and to facilitate alcohol intoxication.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol (drug)</span> Active ingredient in fermented drinks

Alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is the second most consumed psychoactive drug globally behind caffeine, and alcohol use disorders are the most prevalent of all substance use disorders worldwide. Alcohol is a central nervous system (CNS) depressant, decreasing electrical activity of neurons in the brain. The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies alcohol as a toxic, psychoactive, dependence-producing, and carcinogenic substance.

Alcohol-related brain damage alters both the structure and function of the brain as a result of the direct neurotoxic effects of alcohol intoxication or acute alcohol withdrawal. Increased alcohol intake is associated with damage to brain regions including the frontal lobe, limbic system, and cerebellum, with widespread cerebral atrophy, or brain shrinkage caused by neuron degeneration. This damage can be seen on neuroimaging scans.

Alcoholism in adolescence, though less common than in adults, presents a unique set of dangers due to the developing brain's vulnerability to alcohol's effects. Alcohol can cause harm and even damage to a person's DNA. "Alcohol consumption is recognized worldwide as a leading risk factor for disease, disability, and death" and is rated as the most used substance by adolescences. Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological changes, usually a time in a person life in which they go through puberty. Combining these transitional stages and the intake of alcohol can leave a number of consequences for an adolescent.

This page is a list of terms related to the psychoactive drug alcohol.

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  34. ↑ "USC Housing / Residential Education | Campus Activities | USC".
  35. ↑ "Student Sanctions". Alcohol Information on Campus. Retrieved 2021-11-27.
  36. ↑ Moreno, Megan A.; Whitehill, Jennifer M. (2014). "Influence of Social Media on Alcohol Use in Adolescents and Young Adults". Alcohol Research: Current Reviews. 36 (1): 91–100. ISSN   2168-3492. PMC   4432862 . PMID   26259003.
  37. ↑ "Ensure physical distancing during school drop-off and pick-up" (PDF).
  38. 1 2 3 4 "Alcohol and Sexual Assault". pubs.niaaa.nih.gov. Retrieved 2019-11-05.
  39. ↑ Fetters, Ashley (2019-05-02). "Why It Matters Where College Students Binge-Drink". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2019-11-05.
  40. 1 2 "NIAAA Publications". pubs.niaaa.nih.gov. Retrieved 2019-11-06.
  41. ↑ "NIAAA Publications".
  42. ↑ Martinez, Julia A.; Rutledge, Patricia C.; Sher, Kenneth J. (2007). "Fake ID Ownership and Heavy Drinking in Underage College Students: Prospective Findings". Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. 21 (2): 226–232. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.21.2.226. ISSN   0893-164X. PMC   2711502 . PMID   17563142.
  43. ↑ "To the Brim: How USC is fighting a stubborn culture of binge drinking". 2016-09-28.
  44. 1 2 Lemas, Matt (2016-09-28). "To the Brim: How USC is fighting a stubborn culture of binge drinking". Daily Trojan. Retrieved 2019-11-06.
  45. ↑ "Educating College Students on Drinking Risks May Temporarily Help Lessen Drinking Behaviors, Study Finds". www.apa.org. Retrieved 2024-04-28.
  46. ↑ Welsh, Justine W.; Shentu, Yujia; Sarvey, Dana B. (April 2019). "Substance Use Among College Students". Focus: Journal of Life Long Learning in Psychiatry. 17 (2): 117–127. doi:10.1176/appi.focus.20180037. ISSN   1541-4094. PMC   6527004 . PMID   31975967.

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