Epidemiology of binge drinking

Last updated

Binge drinking is the practice of consuming excessive amounts of alcohol in a short period of time. Due to the idiosyncrasies of the human body, the exact amount of alcohol that would constitute binge drinking differs among individuals. [1] The definitions of binge drinking are also nuanced across cultures and population subgroups. For example, many studies use gender-specific measures of binge drinking (such as 5+ drinks for men and 4+ drinks for women). [2] The epidemiology of binge drinking likewise differs across cultures and population subgroups. [3]

Contents

Asia

Singapore

According to the National Health Survey 2020 conducted by the Health Promotion Board Singapore, binge drinking is defined as consumption of five or more alcoholic drinks over a short period of time.

The survey results showed that the frequency of binge drinking was 15.6% in males, 11.9% higher than that for females (3.7%). The largest proportion of males and females who binge drink fall within the 18 – 29 age group.

In 2007, Asia Pacific Breweries Singapore (APBS) spearheaded Get Your Sexy Back (GYSB), Singapore's first youth-for-youth initiative to promote responsible and moderate drinking among young adults. The program seeks to widen awareness and educate individuals about responsible drinking behavior by raising the social currency of moderation. The program engages youths in events and activities that are close to their lifestyles, focusing on four major platforms – Music, Fashion, Sports and Friends to spread the message of responsible drinking.

Europe

The drinking age in most countries is either 16 or 18, though in many countries national or regional regulations ban the consumption and/or the sale of alcoholic drinks stronger than beer or wine to those less than 18 years of age. Licensees may sometimes choose to provide beverages such as diluted wine or beer mixed with lemonade (shandy or Lager Top) with a meal to encourage responsible consumption of alcohol. It is generally perceived that binge drinking is most prevalent in the Vodka Belt (most of Northern and some of Eastern Europe) and least common in the southern part of the continent, in Italy, France, Portugal and the Mediterranean (the Wine Belt). [4]

Using a "5-drink, 30-days" (5 standard drinks in a row during the last 30 days) definition, Denmark leads European binge drinking, with 60% of 15–16-year-olds reporting participating in this behavior (and 61% reporting intoxication). [5] However, there currently appears to be at least some convergence of drinking patterns and styles between the northern and southern countries, with the south beginning to drink more like the north more so than the other way around.

Malta

A notable exception to the lower rates of binge drinking in Southern Europe is the Mediterranean island of Malta, which has adopted the British culture of binge drinking, and where teenagers, often still in their early teens, are able to buy alcohol and drink it in the streets of the main club district, Paceville, due to a lack of police enforcement of the legal drinking age of 17. [6] Statistics show that alcohol consumption in Malta exceeds that in the UK (but binge drinking is slightly lower and intoxication is significantly lower), [5] and report that Malta ranks 5th in the world in common binge drinking. [7] Maltese 15–16-year-olds report binge drinking at a rate of 50%, using a 5-drink, 30-day definition, but only 20% report intoxication in the past 30 days. [5]

Spain

Since the mid-1990s the botellón has been growing in popularity among young people. Botellón, which literally means "big bottle" in Spanish, is a drinking party or gathering that involves consuming alcohol, usually spirits (often mixed with soft drinks), in a public or semi-public place (beaches, parks, streets, etc.). This can be considered a case of binge drinking since most people that attend it consume 3 to 5 drinks in less than five hours.[ citation needed ] Among 15–16-year-olds, 23% report being intoxicated in the past 30 days. [5]

Russia

Binge drinking in Russia ("Zapoy" ("Запой") in Russian), often takes the form of two or more days of continuous drunkenness. Sometimes it can even last up to a week. One study found that among men ages 25–54, about 10% had at least one episode of zapoy in the past year, which can be taken as a sign that one has a drinking problem. [8]

Almost half of working-age men in Russia who die are killed by alcohol abuse, reducing Russia's male life expectancy significantly. [8] [9] [10] Vodka is the preferred alcoholic beverage, and Russia is notably considered part of the Vodka Belt. Using a 5-drink, past 30 days definition, 38% of Russian 15–16-year-olds have binged and 27% became intoxicated, a percentage that is on par with other European countries, and even lower than some. [5]

United Kingdom

In the UK, parallels have been drawn between binge drinking and the Gin Craze of 18th century England. [11] Some areas of the media are spending a great deal of time reporting on what they see as a social ill that is becoming more prevalent as time passes. In 2003, the cost of binge drinking was estimated as £20 billion a year. [12] In response, the government has introduced measures to deter disorderly behavior and sales of alcohol to people under 18, with special provisions in place during the holiday season. In January 2005, it was reported that one million admissions to UK emergency department units each year are alcohol-related; in many cities, Friday and Saturday nights are by far the busiest periods for ambulance services.

The culture of drinking in the UK is markedly different from that of some other European nations. In mainland Europe, alcohol tends to be consumed more slowly over the course of an evening, often accompanied by a restaurant meal. In Scandinavia, occasional bouts of heavy drinking are the norm. In the UK (as well as Ireland), by contrast, alcohol is commonly consumed in rapid binges, leading to more regular instances of severe intoxication. In this way the British combine Northern European volumes of consumption with frequency resembling that of Southern Europe. This "drinking urgency" may have been inspired by traditional pre-midnight pub closing hours in the UK, whereas bars in continental Europe would typically remain open for the entire night. This may have stemmed from the Defence of the Realm Act 1914, emergency legislation dating back to the first world war regulating pub opening times with the intention of getting workers out of the pub and into the munitions factories. Consequently, it was criticized for being draconian and denying the working classes their pleasures. This is one of the reasons for introducing the Licensing Act 2003 which came into effect in England and Wales in 2005, and which allows 24 hour licensing (although not all bars have taken advantage of the change). Some observers, however, believed it would exacerbate the problem. [13]

As of 2008, results have been mixed and inconsistent across the country. [14] Among young people (under 25), binge drinking (and drinking in general) in England appears to have declined since the late 1990s according to the National Health Service. [15] [16]

While being drunk (outside of a student context) in mainland Europe is widely viewed as being socially unacceptable, [17] in the UK the reverse is true in many social circles. Particularly amongst young adults, there is often a certain degree of peer pressure to get drunk during a night out. [18] This culture is increasingly becoming viewed by politicians and the media as a serious problem that ought to be tackled, partly for health reasons, but mostly due to its association with violence and anti-social behaviour. [19]

Using a 5-drink, 30-days definition, British 15–16-year-olds binge drink at a rate of 54%, the fourth highest in Europe, and 46% report intoxication in the past 30 days. [20]

The British TV channel Granada produces a program called Booze Britain , which documents the binge drinking culture by following groups of young adults.

As a reaction to the binge drinking epidemic in Britain, several charities have been created to raise awareness of the dangers of binge drinking and promote responsible drinking. These charities notably include Alcohol Concern and Drinkaware.

In May 2018 the Scottish Government implemented a minimum unit price [21] of 50 pence per unit of alcohol sold in Scotland. The aim of this was to improve health outcomes from by reducing the availability of alcoholic beverages that are both low in cost and high in alcohol content. [22]

The Americas

Canada

Canadian binge drinking rates are comparable to those of the United States. They most resemble drinking rates of geographically similar American states bordering Canada. For example, 29% of 15- to 19-year-olds (35% male, 22% female) and 37% of 20- to 24-year-olds (47% male, 17.9% female) report having 5 or more drinks on one occasion, 12 or more times a year in 2000–01. [23]

In university, binge drinking is especially common during the first week of orientation, commonly known as "frosh week". The first ever known study comparing the drinking patterns of Canadian and American college students under age 25 (in 1998 and 1999, respectively) found that although Canadian students were more likely to drink, American students drank more heavily overall. [24]

"Heavy alcohol use" was defined as usually having 5/4 drinks or more on the days that the person drinks in the past 30 days (American) or 2–3 months (Canadian). Among past year drinkers, 41% and 35% of American and Canadian students, respectively, reported participated in this behavior. Among the total sample, it was 33% and 30%, respectively. Differences included the lack of a gender gap in Canada compared with America, as well some as age-related differences. Canadians exceeded Americans in reported heavy alcohol use until age 19 (especially among the 1% percentage of students under 18), at which point Americans overtook and then began to exceed Canadians, especially among 21- and 22-year-olds. After age 23, there was no longer much of a difference. [24] In Canada, the legal drinking age is 18 or 19, depending on the province.

A relatively popular drinking game among the Canadian skateboarders and heavy metal culture is "wizard sticks", in which drinkers tape a stack of their empty beer cans to the can from which they are currently drinking. The name comes from the fact that when the stack gets tall enough, it resembles a wizard's staff. [25]

United States

The percent of adults who binge drink in the US in 2010 Percent of adults who binge drink US 2010.png
The percent of adults who binge drink in the US in 2010
The average largest number of drinks consumed by binge drinkers on an occasion in the US in 2010 The average largest number of drinks consumed by binge drinkers on an occasion US 2010.png
The average largest number of drinks consumed by binge drinkers on an occasion in the US in 2010

Despite having a legal drinking age of 21, binge drinking in the United States remains very prevalent among high school and college students. Using the popular 5/4 definition of "binge drinking", one study found that, in 1999, 44% of American college students (51% male, 40% female) engaged in this practice at least once in the past two weeks. [26]

One can also look at the prevalence of "extreme drinking" as well. A more recent study of US first-semester college freshmen in 2003 found that, while 41% of males and 34% of females "binged" (using the 5/4 threshold) at least once in the past two weeks, 20% of males and 8% of females drank 10/8 or more drinks (double the 5/4 threshold) at least once in the same period, and 8% of males and 2% of females drank at least 15/12 drinks (triple the threshold). [27]

A main concern of binge drinking on college campuses is how the negative consequences of binge drinking affect the students. A study done by the Harvard School of Public Health reported that students who engage in binge drinking experience numerous problems such as: missing class, engaging in unplanned or unsafe sexual activity, being victims of sexual assault, unintentional injuries, and physical ailments. [28] In 2008 the U.S Surgeon General estimated that around 5,000 Americans aged under 21 die each year from alcohol-related injuries involving underage drinking. [29] Rates of binge drinking in women have been increasing; high risk drinking puts these women at increased risk of the negative long-term effects of alcohol consumption. [30]

The population of people who binge drink mainly comprises young adults aged 18–29, although it is by no means rare among older adults. For example, in 2007 (using a 5-drinks definition per occasion for both genders), 42% of 18- to 25-year-olds "binged" at least once a month, while 20% of 16–17-year-olds and 19% of those over age 35 did so. [31] The peak age is 21. Prevalence varies widely by region, with the highest rates being in the North Central states. [32] Binge drinking is more common in men than it is in women. [2]

The annual "Monitoring the Future" survey found that, in 2007, 10% of 8th graders, 22% of 10th graders, and 26% of 12th graders report having had five or more drinks at least once in the past two weeks. [33] The same survey also found that alcohol was considered somewhat easier to obtain than cigarettes for 8th and 10th graders, even though the minimum age to purchase alcohol is 21 in all 50 states, while for cigarettes it is 18.

The following table represents the percentage of those age 12–20 who illegally binge drink in the United States. [34]

AsianBlackHispanicAmerican IndianWhite
7.9%10.4%17.2%20.3%21.4%

American Indians and First Nations

Binge drinking is a common pattern among Native Americans in both Canada and the United States. Anastasia M. Shkilnyk, who conducted an observational study of the Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation of Northwestern Ontario in the late 1970s when they were demoralized by Ontario Minamata disease, has observed that heavy Native American drinkers may not be physiologically dependent on alcohol, but abuse it by engaging in binge drinking, a practice associated with child neglect, violence, and impoverishment. After binges during which entire families and their friends drink until they are unconscious and their funds are exhausted, they go about their business without drinking. [35]

Oceania

Australia

In 2004–2005, statistics from the National Health Survey [36] show that among the general population over 18, 88% of males and 60% of females engaged in binge drinking at least once in the past year, with 12% and 4%, respectively, doing so at least once a week. Among 18 to 24-year-olds, 49% of males and 21% of females did so at least once a week. At the time, the definition for "binge drinking" corresponded to 7 or more standard Australian drinks per occasion for males and 5 or more for females, roughly equivalent to (but slightly less than) the 5/4 (standard American) drinks definition. [36]

In March 2008, the Australian government earmarked A$53 million towards a campaign against binge drinking, citing two studies done in the past eight years which showed that binge drinking in Australia was at what Prime Minister Kevin Rudd called "epidemic levels". [37] On June 15, the Australian Medical Association released new guidelines defining binge drinking as four standard Australian drinks a night. [38]

The last survey of drinking habits by the Australian Bureau of Statistics found there was an increase in drinking outside the home. In 1999, 34 percent of spending on alcoholic drinks took place on licensed premises. By 2004 this figure had risen to 38 percent. This figure is expected to fall in 2008 in Australia because of stricter licensing laws, smoking bans in pubs and the extra premium people have to pay for buying alcohol in a bar. [39]

New Zealand

Concerns over binge drinking by teenagers has led to a review of liquor advertising being announced by the New Zealand government in January 2006. The review considered regulation of sport sponsorship by liquor companies, which at present is commonplace. Previously the drinking age in New Zealand was 20, then dropped to 18 in 1999. [40]

In direct conjunction with the age-lowering, the Police were found to strictly enforce the on-license (bar, restaurant) code for underage-drinking, less so for the Off-license (liquor stores, supermarkets). As a result, young people ages 15–17 found it significantly harder to get into (or be served at) bars and restaurants than it was before with a poorly enforced (though higher) drinking age of 20. This asymmetric enforcement led to a period of many of New Zealand's youth getting strangers to purchase high alcohol content beverages for them (e.g. cheap vodka or rum) at liquor stores. [41]

A propensity to consume an entire bottle of spirits developed and led to an instant increase in the number of youths under 18 being admitted to A&E hospitals. The price of alcohol at supermarkets and liquor stores had also gone down, and the number of outlets had mushroomed as well. [42] Alcohol remains cheap, and sweet, spirit-based ready to drink beverages (similar to alcopops) remain popular among young people. [43]

Drinking game "Edward Fortyhands", where bottles of beer are taped to participants' hands Edward Fortyhands.jpg
Drinking game "Edward Fortyhands", where bottles of beer are taped to participants' hands

An example of this binge drinking mentality, often seen amongst university students, is the popularity of drinking games such as Edward Wineyhands and Scrumpy Hands, similar to the American drinking game Edward Fortyhands. A recent study showed that 37% of undergraduates binged at least once in the past week. [44] The New Zealand health service classifies Binge Drinking as anytime a person consumes five or more standard drinks in a sitting.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcoholism</span> Problematic excessive alcohol consumption

Alcoholism is the continued drinking of alcohol despite it causing problems. Some definitions require evidence of dependence and withdrawal. Problematic use of alcohol has been mentioned in the earliest historical records. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated there were 283 million people with alcohol use disorders worldwide as of 2016. The term alcoholism was first coined in 1852, but alcoholism and alcoholic are sometimes considered stigmatizing and to discourage seeking treatment, so diagnostic terms such as alcohol use disorder or alcohol dependence are often used instead in a clinical context.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol abuse</span> Substance abuse of alcoholic beverages

Alcohol abuse encompasses a spectrum of alcohol-related substance abuse, ranging from the consumption of more than 2 drinks per day on average for men, or more than 1 drink per day on average for women, to binge drinking or alcohol use disorder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drinking culture</span> Aspect of human behavior

Drinking culture is the set of traditions and social behaviours that surround the consumption of alcoholic beverages as a recreational drug and social lubricant. Although alcoholic beverages and social attitudes toward drinking vary around the world, nearly every civilization has independently discovered the processes of brewing beer, fermenting wine, and distilling spirits, among other practices. Many countries have developed their own regional cultures based on unique traditions around the fermentation and consumption of alcohol, which may also be known as a beer culture, wine culture etc. after a particularly prominent type of drink.

Alcohol has a number of effects on health. Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain, with increased risk ofseveral types of cancer and alcohol use disorder. Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. There is an increased risk of developing an alcohol use disorder for teenagers while their brain is still developing. Adolescents who drink have a higher probability of injury including death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States</span>

Although the minimum legal age to purchase alcohol is 21 in all U.S. states and most territories, the legal details for consumption vary greatly. Although some states completely ban alcohol usage for people under 18, the majority have exceptions that permit consumption.

A drug-related blackout is a phenomenon caused by the intake of any substance or medication in which short-term and long-term memory creation is impaired, therefore causing a complete inability to recall the past. Blackouts are frequently described as having effects similar to that of anterograde amnesia, in which the subject cannot recall any events after the event that caused amnesia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Binge drinking</span> Form of excessive alcohol intake

Binge drinking, or heavy episodic drinking, is drinking alcoholic beverages with an intention of becoming intoxicated by heavy consumption of alcohol over a short period of time, but definitions vary considerably.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol and sex</span>

Alcohol and sex deals with the effects of the consumption of alcohol on sexual behavior. The effects of alcohol are balanced between its suppressive effects on sexual physiology, which will decrease sexual activity, and its suppression of sexual inhibitions. A large portion of sexual assaults involve alcohol consumption by the perpetrator, victim, or both.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol in Australia</span>

Alcohol is commonly consumed and available at pubs and liquor stores in Australia – all of which are private enterprises. Spirits can be purchased at liquor stores and pubs, whereas most grocery stores do not sell them, although they may have separate liquor stores on their premises. Alcohol consumption is higher, according to WHO studies, than in most European countries and several Central Asian and African countries, although consumption is just as high in Australia as in North America. After tobacco, alcohol is the second leading preventable cause of death and hospitalisation in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drunk driving</span> Operating a motor vehicle under the influence of alcohol

Drunk driving is the act of driving under the influence of alcohol. A small increase in the blood alcohol content increases the relative risk of a motor vehicle crash.

The term "Freshman 15" is an expression commonly used in the United States and Canada to refer to weight gain during a student's first year in college. Although the 15 refers to a 15 lb. weight gain, the expression can apply to weight gain in general. In Australia and New Zealand, it is sometimes referred to as "First Year Fatties", "Fresher Spread", or "Fresher Five", the latter referring to a gain of 5 kg (11 lb).

The legal drinking age varies from country to country. In the United States, the legal drinking age is currently 21. To curb excessive alcohol consumption by younger people, instead of raising the drinking age, other countries have raised the prices of alcohol beverages and encouraged the general public to drink less. Setting a legal drinking age of 21 is designed to discourage reckless alcohol consumption by youth, limiting consumption to those who are more mature, who can be expected to make reasonable and wise decisions when it comes to drinking.

Many college campuses throughout the United States have some form of alcohol advertising including flyers on bulletin boards to mini billboard signs on college buses. It is so prevalent on college campuses especially because college students are considered the "targeted marketing group," meaning that college students are more likely to consume larger qualities of alcohol than any other age group, which makes them the prime consumers of alcohol in the United States.

Drunkorexia is a colloquialism for anorexia or bulimia combined with an alcohol use disorder. The term is generally used to denote the utilization of extreme weight control methods to compensate for planned binge drinking. Research on the combination of an eating disorder and binge drinking has primarily focused on college-aged women, though the phenomenon has also been noted among young men. Studies suggest that individuals engage in this combination of self-imposed malnutrition and binge drinking to avoid weight gain from alcohol, to save money for purchasing alcohol, and to facilitate alcohol intoxication.

Pregaming is the process of getting drunk prior to going out socializing, typically done by college students and young adults in a manner as cost-efficient as possible, with hard liquor and cheap beer consumed while in group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol (drug)</span> Active ingredient in fermented drinks

Alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is the second most consumed psychoactive drug globally behind caffeine, and one of the most widely abused drugs in the world. It is a central nervous system (CNS) depressant, decreasing electrical activity of neurons in the brain. The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies alcohol as a toxic, psychoactive, dependence-producing, and carcinogenic substance.

Alcohol is the most frequently used drug by residents living in all isolated, remote and rural regions in Australia. Alcohol consumption is particularly misused by individuals in these areas due to numerous factors distinctive of rural Australia. These factors consist of the reduced access to education and health care professionals with alcohol treatment services, leading to higher rates of unemployment and economic disadvantage. These characteristics promote increased levels of disease, injury and death as a result of the high alcohol-related harms that are substantial in rural communities across Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol use among college students</span> Unhealthy alcohol drinking behaviors by college students

Many students attending colleges, universities, and other higher education institutions consume alcoholic beverages. The laws and social culture around this practice vary by country and institution type, and within an institution, some students may drink heavily whereas others may not drink at all. In the United States, drinking tends to be particularly associated with fraternities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol in the United Kingdom</span>

Alcohol in the United Kingdom is legal to buy, sell and consume. Consumption rates within the country are high among the average of OECD nations however average among European countries but consistently ranks highest on binge drinking culture. An estimated 29 million people in the United Kingdom drank alcohol in 2017.

This page is a list of terms related to the psychoactive drug alcohol.

References

  1. ↑ "Binge drinking facts". drinkaware. 20 June 2022. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
  2. 1 2 Wilsnack, Richard W.; Wilsnack, Sharon C.; Gmel, Gerhard; Kantor, Lori Wolfgang (January 2018). "Gender Differences in Binge Drinking". Alcohol Research: Current Reviews. 39 (1): 57–76. ISSN   2168-3492. PMC   6104960 . PMID   30557149.
  3. ↑ Krieger, Heather (2018). "The Epidemiology of Binge Drinking Among College-Age Individuals in the United States". Alcohol Research: Current Reviews. 39 (1): 23–30. PMC   6104967 . PMID   30557145.
  4. ↑ "Alcohol Alert Digest". Institute of Alcohol Studies UK. 1997. Archived from the original on 2008-12-27. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 http://www.udetc.org/documents/CompareDrinkRate.pdf Archived 2011-07-23 at the Wayback Machine Youth Drinking Rates and Problems: A Comparison of European Countries and the United States (Sources: 2003 ESPAD Survey and 2003 United States Monitoring the Future Survey)
  6. ↑ "They're closing the tap". Malta Today. No. 323. 15 January 2006. Archived from the original on 2010-01-16.
  7. ↑ Piscopo, R.V.; D’Emanuele, A.O. (22 June 2005). "Don't Risk it—sedqa's new binge-drinking campaign". malta INDEPENDENT.
  8. 1 2 Tomkins S, Saburova L, Kiryanov N, et al. (April 2007). "Prevalence and socio-economic distribution of hazardous patterns of alcohol drinking: study of alcohol consumption in men aged 25–54 years in Izhevsk, Russia". Addiction. 102 (4): 544–53. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01693.x. PMC   1890567 . PMID   17362291.
  9. ↑ Nemtsov A (February 2005). "Russia: alcohol yesterday and today". Addiction. 100 (2): 146–9. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.00971.x . PMID   15679743.
  10. ↑ Treml, Vladimir G. (October 1982). "Death from Alcohol Poisoning in the USSR". Soviet Studies . 34 (4): 487–505. doi:10.1080/09668138208411441. JSTOR   151904.
  11. ↑ Borsay, Peter (September 2007). "Binge drinking and moral panics: historical parallels??". History & Policy. United Kingdom . Retrieved 9 December 2010.
  12. ↑ "Binge drinking costing billions". BBC. 19 September 2003.
  13. ↑ 24-hour laws haven't cured binge drinking telegraph.co.uk
  14. ↑ Elizabeth Stewart and agencies (4 March 2008). "Government admits 'mixed' results from 24-hour licensing". Guardian. Retrieved 2010-03-15.
  15. ↑ Bowcott O (26 May 2010). "English drinking less alcohol, official figures show". Guardian.
  16. ↑ "Statistics on Alcohol: England, 2010" (PDF). National Health Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-04-09.
  17. ↑ "Rolling away the barrel". The Economist. 2010-04-08.
  18. ↑ Robertson, Poppy (2008-09-09). "What teenagers think about binge drinking". The Guardian. London.
  19. ↑ Mack, Jon (2009). "The Last Chance Saloon: The Drinking Banning Order". Criminal Law & Justice Weekly . 173 (51/52): 805–7.
  20. ↑ "Youth Drinking Rates and Problems: A Comparison of European Countries and the United States" (PDF). 2005. Archived from the original on 2015-09-21.
  21. ↑ "Minimum unit pricing". www.gov.scot. Retrieved 2023-03-03.
  22. ↑ "5. Objective". www.gov.scot. Retrieved 2023-03-03.
  23. ↑ "Frequency of Drinking". Faslink.org. Archived from the original on 2010-10-29. Retrieved 2010-03-15.
  24. 1 2 http://alcoholism.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/cas/Documents/Canadian1%2DpressRelease/%5B%5D First National Comparison
  25. ↑ "'Wizard Stick' Parties a Binge Drinking concern". Jointogether.org. Archived from the original on 2008-12-25. Retrieved 2010-03-15.
  26. ↑ Wechsler H, et al. (2000). "College Binge Drinking in the 1990s: A Continuing Problem. Results of the Harvard School of Public Health 1999 College Alcohol Study" (PDF). Journal of American College Health. 48 (5): 199–210. doi:10.1080/07448480009599305. PMID   10778020. S2CID   13874896.
  27. ↑ White AM, Kraus CL, Swartzwelder H (June 2006). "Many college freshmen drink at levels far beyond the binge threshold". Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 30 (6): 1006–10. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00122.x. PMID   16737459.[ dead link ]
  28. ↑ Tewksbury R, Higgins GE, Mustaine EE (2008). "Binge Drinking Among College Athletes and Non-Athletes". Deviant Behavior. 29 (4): 275–293. doi:10.1080/01639620701588040. S2CID   143731641.
  29. ↑ Tomorrow's World - July/August 2008 - "Armageddon And Beyond" - Page 27
  30. ↑ Kelly-Weeder, S. (December 2008). "Binge drinking in college-aged women: framing a gender-specific prevention strategy". Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners. 20 (12): 577–84. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-7599.2008.00357.x . PMID   19120588. S2CID   36267902.
  31. ↑ Kennet, Joel (2008). "3. Alcohol Use". In Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Office of Applied Studies (ed.). Results from the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings. NSDUH Series H-34. Rockville MD: Department of Health and Human Services. SMA 08-4343. Archived from the original on 2014-10-30. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
  32. ↑ SAMSHA News Release (16 February 2005). "North Dakota Tops Binge Drinking Stats". Health: Alcoholism. About.com. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
  33. ↑ "Overview of Key Findings 2007" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-05-08. Retrieved 2010-03-15.
  34. ↑ "The impact of alcohol in society". Archived from the original on 2008-10-25. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
  35. ↑ Anestasia M. Shkilnyk (March 11, 1985). A Poison Stronger than Love: The Destruction of an Ojibwa Community (trade paperback). Yale University Press. p.  21. ISBN   978-0300033250.
  36. 1 2 "Alcohol Consumption in Australia: A Snapshot, 2004–05". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 25 August 2006. 4832.0.55.001.
  37. ↑ "Rudd sets aside $53-million to tackle binge drinking". PM. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 10 March 2008.
  38. ↑ "Binge drinking on people's minds: AMA". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 15 June 2008.
  39. ↑ Lee J (24 April 2008). "Back to the bottle shop as drinkers stay at home". The Age . Archived from the original on 16 July 2012.
  40. ↑ "Minimum Drinking and Purchasing Age Laws". International Center for Alcohol Policies. February 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-12. Retrieved 2012-12-22.
  41. ↑ Palmer A (18 August 2009). "Binge drinking: Does Britain need to look to Italy to solve booze problem??". Daily Mirror . Retrieved 2009-12-20.
  42. ↑ Gee, Tony (26 March 2008). "Mayor seeks drinking age lift". NZ Herald. Retrieved 2012-12-23.
  43. ↑ "Eye on Crime: Nights of extreme in Christchurch". The Press . 27 June 2008. Archived from the original on 17 September 2012. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
  44. ↑ "Hazardous drinking among New Zealand university students has its roots in high school". Eurekalert.org. 2008-11-20. Retrieved 2010-03-15.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.