Alcoholism in family systems

Last updated
Temperance Lecture an 1861 portrait by Edward Edmondson, Jr. now on display at the Dayton Art Institute 'Temperance Lecture' by Edward Edmondson, Jr., Dayton Art Institute.jpg
Temperance Lecture an 1861 portrait by Edward Edmondson, Jr. now on display at the Dayton Art Institute

Alcoholism in family systems refers to the conditions in families that enable alcoholism and the effects of alcoholic behavior by one or more family members on the rest of the family. Mental health professionals are increasingly considering alcoholism and addiction as diseases that flourish in and are enabled by family systems. [1]

Contents

Family members react to the alcoholic with particular behavioral patterns. They may enable the addiction to continue by shielding the addict from the negative consequences of their actions. Such behaviors are referred to as codependence. In this way, the alcoholic is said to suffer from the disease of addiction, whereas the family members suffer from the disease of codependence. [2] [3] While it is recognized that addiction is a family disease affecting the entire family system, "the family is often ignored and neglected in the treatment of addictive disease." [4] Each member is affected and should receive treatment for their benefit and healing, but in addition to benefitting the individuals themselves, this also helps better to support the addict/alcoholic in their recovery process. "The chances of recovery are greatly reduced unless the co-dependents are willing to accept their role in the addictive process and submit to treatment themselves." [5] "Co-dependents are mutually dependent on the addict to fulfill some need of their own." [4]

For example, the "Chief Enabler" (the main enabler in the family) will often turn a blind eye to the addict's drug/alcohol use as this allows for the enabler to continue to play the victim and/or martyr role while allowing the addict to continue his/her own destructive behavior. Therefore, "the behavior of each reinforces and maintains the other, while also raising the costs and emotional consequences for both." [6]

Alcoholism is one of the leading causes of a dysfunctional family. [7] "About one-fourth of the U.S. population is a member of a family that is affected by an addictive disorder in a first-degree relative." [4] [8] As of 2001, there were an estimated 26.8 million children of alcoholics (COAs) in the United States, with as many as 11 million of them under the age of 18. [9] Children of addicts have an increased suicide rate and on average have total health care costs 32 percent greater than children of nonalcoholic families. [9] [10]

According to the American Psychiatric Association, physicians stated three criteria to diagnose this disease:

Adults from alcoholic families experience higher levels of state and trait anxiety and lower levels of differentiation of self than adults raised in non-alcoholic families. [12] Additionally, adult children of alcoholics have lower self-esteem, excessive feelings of responsibility, difficulties reaching out, higher incidence of depression, and increased likelihood of becoming alcoholics. [13]

Parental alcoholism may affect the fetus even before a child is born. In pregnant women, alcohol is carried to all of the mother's organs and tissues, including the placenta, where it easily crosses through the membrane separating the maternal and fetal blood systems. When a pregnant woman drinks an alcoholic beverage, the concentration of alcohol in her unborn baby's bloodstream is the same level as her own. A pregnant woman who consumes alcohol during her pregnancy may give birth to a baby with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). [11] FAS is known to produce children with damage to the central nervous system (general growth and facial features). The prevalence of this class of disorder is thought to be between 2–5 per 1000. [14]

Alcoholism does not have uniform effects on all families. The levels of dysfunction and resiliency of non-alcoholic adults are important factors in effects on children in the family. Children of untreated alcoholics have lower measures of family cohesion, intellectual-cultural orientation, active-recreational orientation, and independence. They have higher levels of conflict within the family, and many experience other family members as distant and non-communicative. In families with untreated alcoholics, the cumulative effect of the family dysfunction may affect the children's ability to grow in developmentally healthy ways. [15] [16]

Family roles

"A maniacal man is visited in prison by his children, all ruined through his drinking habit". Reproduction of an etching by G. Cruikshank, 1847. A maniacal man is visited in prison by his children, all rui Wellcome V0019408.jpg
"A maniacal man is visited in prison by his children, all ruined through his drinking habit". Reproduction of an etching by G. Cruikshank, 1847.

The role of the "Chief Enabler" is typically the spouse, significant other, parent, or eldest child of the alcoholic/addict. This person demonstrates "a strong tendency to avoid any confrontation of the addictive behavior and a subconscious effort to actively perpetuate the addiction." [4] The "Chief Enabler" also often doubles as the "Responsible One", [6] or "Family Hero", [6] another role assumed by family members of the alcoholic/addict. Both the "Chief Enabler" and "Responsible One" (aka "Model Child" [4] ) will take "over [the alcoholic/addict's] roles and responsibilities". [4] For example, a parent might pay for expenses and take over responsibilities (i.e. car payments, the raising of a grandchild, provide room and board, etc.), while a child may provide care for their siblings, become the "peacekeeper" in the home, take on all the chores and cooking, etc. A spouse or significant other may overcompensate by providing all the care to the children, being the sole financial contributor to the household, covering up or hiding the addiction from others, etc. This role often receives the most praise from non-family members, causing the individual to struggle to see that it is an unhealthy role that contributes to the addict/alcoholic's disease as well as the family's dysfunction.

Another role is that of the "Problem Child" or "Scapegoat." [4] [6] This person "may be the only [one] clearly seen as having a problem" [6] outside of the actual addict/alcoholic. This child (or adult child of the alcoholic) "gets blamed for everything; they have problems at school, exhibit negative behavior, and often develop drug or alcohol problems as a way to act out. Their behavior demands whatever attention is available from parents and siblings." [4] This often "takes the focus off the parental alcohol problem", and the child can be the "scapegoat" under the myth that his/her behavior fuels the parent's drinking or using. [6] However, this child draws attention from outsiders, which may contribute to the recognition of the family alcohol problem by outsiders. [6]

The "Lost Child" role is identified in this system through children that are "withdrawn, 'spaced-out,' and disconnected from the life and emotions around them." [4] They often avoid "any emotionally confronting issues, [and so are] unable to form close friendships or intimate bonds with others." [4]

Other children "trivialize things by minimizing all serious issues as an avoidance strategy [and] are well-liked and easy to befriend but are usually superficial in all relationships, including those with their own family members." [4] These children are known as the "Mascot" or "Family Clown". [4]

However, alcoholic family roles have not withstood the standards that psychological theories of personality are typically subjected to. The evidence for alcoholic family roles theory provides limited or no construct validity or clinical utility. [17]

Prevalence

Based on the number of children with parents meeting the DSM-V criteria for alcohol abuse or alcohol dependence, in 1996 there were an estimated amount of 26.8 million children of alcoholics (COAs) in the United States, of which 11 million were under the age of 18. [18] As of 1988, it was estimated that 76 million Americans, about 43 percent of the U.S. adult population, have been exposed to alcoholism or problem drinking in the family, either having grown up with an alcoholic, having an alcoholic blood relative, or marrying an alcoholic. [19] While growing up, nearly one in five adult Americans (18 percent) lived with an alcoholic. In 1992, it was estimated that one in eight adult American drinkers were alcoholics or experienced problems as a consequence of their alcohol use. [20]

Familiarity

Children of alcoholics (COAs) are more susceptible to alcoholism and other drug abuse than children of non-alcoholics. Children of alcoholics are four times more likely than non-COAs to develop alcoholism. Both genetic and environmental factors influence the development of alcoholism in COAs. [16] [21]

COAs' perceptions of their parents' drinking habits influence their own future drinking patterns and are developed at an early age. Alcohol-related expectancies are correlated with parental alcoholism and alcohol abuse among their offspring. [22] [23] Problem-solving discussions in families with an alcoholic parent contained more negative family interactions than in families with non-alcoholic parents. [21] [22] Several factors related to parental alcoholism influence COA substance abuse, including stress, negative affect and decreased parental monitoring. Impaired parental monitoring and negative affect correlate with COAs associating with peers that support drug use. [22]

After drinking alcohol, sons of alcoholics experience more of the physiological changes associated with pleasurable effects compared with sons of non-alcoholics, although only immediately after drinking. [24]

Compared with non-alcoholic families, alcoholic families demonstrate poorer problem-solving abilities, both between the parents and within the family as a whole. These communication problems may contribute to the escalation of conflicts in alcoholic families. COAs are more likely than non-COAs to be aggressive, impulsive, and engage in disruptive and sensation-seeking behaviors. [22] [25]

Alcohol addiction is a complex disease that results from a variety of genetic, social, and environmental influences. Alcoholism affected approximately 4.65 percent of the U.S. population in 2001–2002, producing severe economic, social, and medical ramifications. [26] Researchers estimate that between 50 and 60 percent of alcoholism risk is determined by genetics. [27] [28] This strong genetic component has sparked numerous linkage and association studies investigating the roles of chromosomal regions and genetic variants in determining alcoholism susceptibility.

Marital relationships

A French temperance organisation poster depicting the effects of alcoholism in a marriage A wife asking her drunkard husband to hand over a bottle Wellcome L0067935.jpg
A French temperance organisation poster depicting the effects of alcoholism in a marriage

Alcoholism usually has strong negative effects on marital relationships. Separated and divorced men and women were three times as likely as married men and women to say they had been married to an alcoholic or problem drinker. Almost two-thirds of separated and divorced women and almost half of separated or divorced men under age 46 have been exposed to alcoholism in the family at some time. [19]

Exposure was higher among women (46.2 percent) than among men (38.9 percent) and declined with age. Exposure to alcoholism in the family was strongly related to marital status, independent of age: 55.5 percent of separated or divorced adults had been exposed to alcoholism in some family member, compared with 43.5 percent of married, 38.5 percent of never married, and 35.5 percent of widowed persons. Nearly 38 percent of separated or divorced women had been married to an alcoholic, but only about 12 percent of currently married women were married to an alcoholic. [19]

Children

Baby drinking beer Detsky alkoholismus.jpg
Baby drinking beer

Prevalence of abuse

Over one million children yearly are confirmed as victims of child abuse and neglect by state child protective service agencies. Substance abuse is one of the two largest problems affecting families in the United States, being a factor in nearly four-fifths of reported cases. Alcoholism is more prevalent among child-abusing parents. Alcoholism is more strongly correlated to child abuse than depression and other disorders. [29] [30]

Adoption plays only a slight role in alcoholism in the family. Studies were done comparing children who were born into a family with an alcoholic parent and raised by adoptive (non-alcoholic) parents as compared to children born to non-alcoholic parents and raised by adopted alcoholic parents. The results (in US and Scandinavian studies) were that those adopted children born of an alcoholic parent (and adopted by non-alcoholic parents) developed alcoholism at higher rates as adults. [31]

Correlates

Children of alcoholics exhibit symptoms of depression and anxiety more than children of non-alcoholics. COAs have lower self-esteem than non-COAs from childhood through young adulthood. [21] [32] Children of alcoholics show more symptoms of anxiety, depression, and externalizing behavior disorders than non-COAs. Some of these symptoms include crying, lack of friends, fear of going to school, nightmares, perfectionism, hoarding, and excessive self-consciousness. [33]

Many children of alcoholics score lower on tests measuring cognitive and verbal skills than non-COAs. Lacking the requisite skills to express themselves can impact academic performance, relationships, and job interviews. The lack of these skills do not, however, imply that COAs are intellectually impaired. [34] [35] COAs are also shown to have difficulty with abstraction and conceptual reasoning, both of which play an important role in problem-solving academically and otherwise. [36] [37]

In her book Adult Children of Alcoholics, Janet G. Woititz describes numerous traits common among adults who had an alcoholic parent. Although not necessarily universal or comprehensive, these traits constitute an adult children of alcoholics syndrome (cf. the work of Wayne Kritsberg).

Coping mechanisms

Suggested practices to mitigate the impact of parental alcoholism on the development of their children include: [38]

Resilience

Professor and psychiatrist Dieter J. Meyerhoff states that the negative effects of alcohol on the body and on health are undeniable, but individuals should not forget the most important unit in society affected, family and children. The family is the main institution in which the child should feel safe and have moral values. If a good starting point is given, it is less likely that when a child becomes an adult, has a mental disorder, or is addicted to drugs or alcohol. [40] According to the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP), children are in a unique position when their parents abuse alcohol. The behavior of a parent is the essence of the problem because the children do not have and can not receive support from their own families. When they see changes from happy to angry parents, the children begin to think that they are the reason for these changes. Self-accusation, guilt, frustration, and anger arise because the child is trying to understand why this behavior occurs. Dependence on alcohol creates large amounts of harm to childhood and adolescent psychology in a family environment. Psychologists Michelle L. Kelley and Keith Klostermann describe the effects of parental alcoholism on children and describe the development and behavior of these children. Children of alcoholics often face problems such as behavioral disorders, oppression, crime, and attention deficit disorder, and there is a higher risk of internal behavior, such as depression and anxiety. Therefore, they begin drinking alcohol earlier and more often and are more likely to go from moderate to severe alcohol consumption. Young people with parental abuse and parental violence are likely to live in large crime areas, which may have a negative impact on the quality of schools and increase the impact of violence in that area. Paternal alcoholism, and general parental verbal and/or physical abuse can cause the fears of children and the internalization of symptoms, with a greater likelihood of child aggression and emotional misconduct. [41]

Research on alcoholism within families has leaned towards exploring issues that are wrong in the community rather than potential strengths or positives. [42] When researchers conduct research that helps communities, it can be easier for community members to identify with the positives and work towards a path of resilience. Flawed research design in adult children of alcoholics (ACOA) research showed ACOAs were psychologically damaged. [43] Some flawed research designs include using ACOAs as part of the control group and comparing them to other ACOAs within the same study. This may have caused some limitations in the study that were not listed. When comparing ACOAs to other ACOAs, it is difficult to interpret accurate results that show certain behaviors in the group studied. Research that has been conducted more recently has used control groups with non-ACOAs to see whether the behaviors align with prior research. This research has shown that behaviors were similar between non-ACOAs and ACOAs. An 18-year study compared children of alcoholics (COA) to other COAs. In failing to use non-COAs as controls, an opportunity is missed to see if the negative aspects of a person are related to having an alcoholic parent, or if they are simply a fact of life. [44] For example, in Werner's study, he found that 30 percent of COAs were committing serious delinquencies. [44] This data would have been more usable if they had viewed the percentage of those committing crimes when compared to non-ACOAs. In a study conducted in a Midwestern university, researchers found that there was no significant difference between ACOA and non-ACOA students. One of the main differences was the student's views on how they connect their past experiences with their current social-emotional functioning. Students who were ACOAs did not demonstrate issues with their perspective on their interpersonal issues any more than the non-ACA students. However, this study did show that there were other underlying problems in the family structure that may attribute to the perception of not being well adjusted in life.

Due to the flawed research that has been conducted in the past, many stereotypes have followed ACOAs. [45] ACOAs have been identified as having a variety of emotional and behavioral problems, such as sleep problems, aggression, and lowered self-esteem. [45] When it comes to being a COA or ACOA, there is still hope. Results showed that a supportive and loving relationship with one of the parents can counterbalance the possible negative effects of the relationship with the alcoholic parent. When there is one alcoholic parent in the household, it helps if the child relies on other family members for support. It may be the second parent, siblings, or members of the extended family. Having other supportive family members can help the child feel like s/he is not alone. [46] Younger generations of ACOAs scored more positively, in terms of coping mechanisms. This may be due to the fact that alcoholism is seen more as an illness nowadays, rather than a moral defect. There has been less victim blaming of alcoholism on parents because it has now been declared a disease rather than a behavioral problem. [43] Studies show that when ACOAs use positive coping mechanisms, it is related to more positive results. When an ACOA approaches their issues, rather than avoids them, it often relates to having a positive outlook. [43] Studies have shown that ACOAs and COAs have more compulsive behaviors that may cause the need for higher achievement. [47] Some ACOAs have shown that the only way to survive is to fend for themselves. This causes a sense of independence that helps them become more self-reliant. Because they perceive independence and hard work as necessary, ACOAs develop a sense of survival instinct. [48]

Implications for counselors

Counselors serving ACOAs need to be careful to not assume that the client's presenting problems are due solely to the parent's alcoholism. Exploring the ACOAs life events, such as the number of alcoholic parents, length of time the client lived with the alcoholic parent, past interventions, and the role of the extended family may help in determining what the correct method of intervention may be. [45]

Many factors can affect marital and/or parenting difficulties, but there has not been any evidence found that can link these issues specifically to ACOAs. [47] Research has been conducted to try to identify issues that arise when someone is a COA. It has been hard to isolate these issues solely to the fact that the child's parents are alcoholics. Other behaviors need to be studied, like dysfunctional family relationships, childhood abuse, and other childhood stressors, and how they may contribute to things like depression, anxiety, and bad relationships in ACOAs. [47]

Counselors serving ACOAs can also help by working on building coping mechanisms such as creating meaningful relationships with other non-alcoholic family members. Having other family members who are supportive can help the ACOA feel like they are not alone. [46] Counselors can also provide some psycho-education on alcoholism and its effects on family members of alcoholics. Research shows that ACOAs feel less like blaming their parents for their alcoholism after learning that alcoholism is a disease, rather than a behavior. [43]

Pregnancy

Prenatal alcohol-related effects can occur with moderate levels of alcohol consumption by non-alcoholic and alcoholic women. Cognitive performance in infants and children is not as impacted by mothers who stopped alcohol consumption early in pregnancy, even if it was resumed after giving birth. [49]

An analysis of six-year-olds with alcohol exposure during the second trimester of pregnancy showed lower academic performance and problems with reading, spelling, and mathematical skills. Six percent of offspring from alcoholic mothers have fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). The risk an offspring born to an alcoholic mother having FAS increases from 6 percent to 70 percent if the mother's previous child had FAS. [50]

People diagnosed with FAS have IQs ranging from 20 to 105 (with a mean of 68), and demonstrate poor concentration and attention skills. FAS causes growth deficits, morphological abnormalities, intellectual disability, and behavioral difficulties. Among adolescents and adults, those with FAS are more likely to have mental health problems, drop out or be suspended from school, problems with the law, require assisted living as an adult, and problems with maintaining employment. [50]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcoholism</span> Problematic excessive alcohol consumption

Alcoholism is the continued drinking of alcohol despite it causing problems. Some definitions require evidence of dependence and withdrawal. Problematic use of alcohol has been mentioned in the earliest historical records. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated there were 283 million people with alcohol use disorders worldwide as of 2016. The term alcoholism was first coined in 1852, but alcoholism and alcoholic are sometimes considered stigmatizing and to discourage seeking treatment, so diagnostic terms such as alcohol use disorder or alcohol dependence are often used instead in a clinical context.

Twelve-step programs are international mutual aid programs supporting recovery from substance addictions, behavioral addictions and compulsions. Developed in the 1930s, the first twelve-step program, Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), founded by Bill Wilson and Bob Smith, aided its membership to overcome alcoholism. Since that time dozens of other organizations have been derived from AA's approach to address problems as varied as drug addiction, compulsive gambling, sex, and overeating. All twelve-step programs utilize a version of AA's suggested twelve steps first published in the 1939 book Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How More Than One Hundred Men Have Recovered from Alcoholism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Codependency</span> Type of relationship where one person enables the others self-destructive tendencies

In psychology, codependency is a theory that attempts to explain imbalanced relationships where one person enables another person's self-destructive behavior such as addiction, poor mental health, immaturity, irresponsibility, or under-achievement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol abuse</span> Substance abuse of alcoholic beverages

Alcohol abuse encompasses a spectrum of alcohol-related substance abuse, ranging from the consumption of more than 2 drinks per day on average for men, or more than 1 drink per day on average for women, to binge drinking or alcohol use disorder.

The long-term effects of alcohol have been extensively researched. The health effects of long-term alcohol consumption on health vary depending on the amount consumed. Even light drinking poses health risks, but atypically small amounts of alcohol may have health benefits. Alcoholism causes severe health consequences which outweigh any potential benefits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder</span> Group of conditions resulting from maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) are a group of conditions that can occur in a person who is exposed to alcohol during gestation. FASD affects 1 in 20 Americans, but is highly mis- and under-diagnosed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dysfunctional family</span> Type of family

A dysfunctional family is a family in which conflict, misbehavior and often child neglect or abuse on the part of individual parents occur continuously and regularly. Children that grow up in such families may think such a situation is normal. Dysfunctional families are primarily a result of two adults, one typically overtly abusive and the other codependent, and may also be affected by substance abuse or other forms of addiction, or sometimes by an untreated mental illness. Parents having grown up in a dysfunctional family may over-correct or emulate their own parents. In some cases, the dominant parent will abuse or neglect their children and the other parent will not object, misleading a child to assume blame.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Child abuse</span> Maltreatment or neglect of a child

Child abuse is physical, sexual, emotional and/or psychological maltreatment or neglect of a child, especially by a parent or a caregiver. Child abuse may include any act or failure to act by a parent or a caregiver that results in actual or potential wrongful harm to a child and can occur in a child's home, or in organizations, schools, or communities the child interacts with.

Alcohol has a number of effects on health. Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain, several types of cancer and alcohol use disorder. Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. There is an increased risk of developing an alcohol use disorder for teenagers while their brain is still developing. Adolescents who drink have a higher probability of injury including death.

The modern disease theory of alcoholism states that problem drinking is sometimes caused by a disease of the brain, characterized by altered brain structure and function. Today, alcohol use disorder (AUD) is used as a more scientific and suitable approach to alcohol dependence and alcohol-related problems.

Sibling abuse includes the physical, psychological, or sexual abuse of one sibling by another. More often than not, the younger sibling is abused by the older sibling. Sibling abuse is the most common of family violence in the US, but the least reported. As opposed to sibling rivalry, sibling abuse is characterized by the one-sided treatment of one sibling to another.

Divorce can affect both the people getting divorced and any children they may have in both the short and long term. After a divorce, the couple often experiences effects including decreased levels of happiness, a change in economic status, and emotional problems. The effects on children can include academic, behavioral, and psychological problems. Studies suggest that children with divorced parents are more likely to exhibit such behavioral issues than those with non-divorced parents.

Al-Anon Family Groups, founded in 1951, is an international mutual aid organization for people who have been impacted by another person's alcoholism. In the organization's own words, Al-Anon is a "worldwide fellowship that offers a program of recovery for the families and friends of alcoholics, whether or not the alcoholic recognizes the existence of a alcohol-related problem or seeks help." Alateen "is part of the Al-Anon fellowship designed for the younger relatives and friends of alcoholics through the teen years".

Gene–environment correlation is said to occur when exposure to environmental conditions depends on an individual's genotype.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Binge drinking</span> Form of excessive alcohol intake

Binge drinking, or heavy episodic drinking, is drinking alcoholic beverages with an intention of becoming intoxicated by heavy consumption of alcohol over a short period of time, but definitions vary considerably.

Child-to-parent violence (CPV), also recognized as abuse of parents by their children, constitutes a manifestation of domestic violence characterized by the infliction of maltreatment upon parents. This mistreatment commonly manifests in verbal or physical forms.

Adult Children of Alcoholics founded circa 1978 is a fellowship of people who desire to recover from the effects of growing up in an alcoholic or otherwise dysfunctional family. ACA membership has few formal requirements. ACA does not accept any outside contributions and is supported entirely by donations from its members. The organization is not related to any particular religion and has no political affiliation. Tony A. was among its co-founders and is the author of The Laundry List, 12 steps for adult children of alcoholics, The Problem, which are all published in his book, The Laundry List: The ACOA Experience

Alcohol-related brain damage alters both the structure and function of the brain as a result of the direct neurotoxic effects of alcohol intoxication or acute alcohol withdrawal. Increased alcohol intake is associated with damage to brain regions including the frontal lobe, limbic system, and cerebellum, with widespread cerebral atrophy, or brain shrinkage caused by neuron degeneration. This damage can be seen on neuroimaging scans.

Subjective response to alcohol (SR) refers to an individual's unique experience of the pharmacological effects of alcohol and is a putative risk factor for the development of alcoholism. Subjective effects include both stimulating experiences typically occurring during the beginning of a drinking episode as breath alcohol content (BAC) rises and sedative effects, which are more prevalent later in a drinking episode as BAC wanes. The combined influence of hedonic and aversive subjective experiences over the course of a drinking session are strong predictors of alcohol consumption and drinking consequences. There is also mounting evidence for consideration of SR as an endophenotype with some studies suggesting that it accounts for a significant proportion of genetic risk for the development of alcohol use disorder.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol use among college students</span> Unhealthy alcohol drinking behaviors by college students

Many students attending colleges, universities, and other higher education institutions consume alcoholic beverages. The laws and social culture around this practice vary by country and institution type, and within an institution, some students may drink heavily whereas others may not drink at all. In the United States, drinking tends to be particularly associated with fraternities.

References

  1. ↑ Crnkovic, A. Elaine; DelCampo, Robert L. (March 1998). "A Systems Approach to the Treatment of Chemical Addiction". Contemporary Family Therapy . 20 (1): 25–36. doi:10.1023/A:1025084516633. ISSN   1573-3335. S2CID   141085303.
  2. ↑ O'Farrell, Timothy J; Fals-Stewart, William (2006). "An Introduction to Behavioral Couples Therapy for Alcoholism". Behavioral Couples Therapy for Alcoholism And Drug Abuse. Guilford Press. pp.  1–7. ISBN   978-1-59385-324-2. OCLC   64336035.
  3. ↑ Cermak, TL (1989). "Al-Anon and recovery". Recent Developments in Alcoholism. Recent Developments in Alcoholism. Vol. 7. pp. 91–104. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1678-5_5. ISBN   978-1-4899-1680-8. ISSN   0738-422X. PMID   2648500.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Inaba, Darryl (2011). Uppers, downers, all arounders: physical and mental effects of psychoactive drugs. Cohen, William E., 1941– (7th ed.). Ashland, Or.: CNS Publications. ISBN   9780926544307. OCLC   747281783.
  5. ↑ (Gorski, 1993; Liepman, Keller, Botelho, et al., 1998)
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kinney, Jean (2012). Loosening the grip : a handbook of alcohol information (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. ISBN   9780073404684. OCLC   696942382.
  7. ↑ Barnett, Mary Ann (October 2003). "All in the Family: Resources and Referrals for Alcoholism". Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners. 15 (10): 467–472. doi:10.1111/j.1745-7599.2003.tb00333.x. ISSN   1745-7599. PMID   14606136. S2CID   40389156.
  8. ↑ (Liepman, Parran, Farkas, et al., 2009)
  9. 1 2 Mulligan, Kate (5 October 2001). "Al-Anon Celebration Spotlights Importance of Family Involvement". Psychiatric News. 36 (9): 7. doi:10.1176/pn.36.19.0007.
  10. ↑ Drake, Robert E.; Racusin, Robert J.; Murphy, Timothy A. (1 August 1990). "Suicide Among Adolescents With Mentally Ill Parents". Hospital & Community Psychiatry. 41 (8): 921–922. doi:10.1176/ps.41.8.921. ISSN   0022-1597. PMID   2401483.
  11. 1 2 Parsons, Tetyana (14 December 2003). "Alcoholism and Its Effect on the Family". AllPsych. Retrieved 26 April 2018.
  12. ↑ Maynard, Stuart (1999). "Growing up in an alcoholic family system: the effect on anxiety and differentiation of self". Journal of Substance Abuse. 9: 161–170. doi:10.1016/S0899-3289(97)90014-6. ISSN   0740-5472. PMID   9494947.
  13. ↑ Cutter, CG; Cutter, HS (January 1987). "Experience and change in Al-Anon family groups: adult children of alcoholics". Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 48 (1): 29–32. doi:10.15288/jsa.1987.48.29. ISSN   0096-882X. PMID   3821116.
  14. ↑ Paley, Blair; O'Connor, Mary J. (3 September 2009). "Intervention for individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Treatment approaches and case management". Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews. 15 (3): 258–267. doi: 10.1002/ddrr.67 . PMID   19731383.
  15. ↑ Moos, R.H.; Billinop, A.B. (1982). "Children of alcoholics during the recovery process: Alcoholic and matched control families". Addictive Behaviors. 7 (2): 115–164. doi:10.1016/0306-4603(82)90040-5. PMID   7102446.
  16. 1 2 Windle, Michael (1997). "Concepts and Issues in COA Research" (PDF). Alcohol Health and Research World. 21 (3): 185–191. PMC   6826804 . PMID   15706767. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2010.
  17. ↑ Vernig, Peter (2010). "Family Roles in Homes With Alcohol-Dependent Parents: An Evidence-Based Review". Substance Use & Misuse. 46 (4): 535–542. doi:10.3109/10826084.2010.501676. PMID   20735193. S2CID   3279171.
  18. ↑ Eigen, L.; Rowden, D. (1996). "Section 1: Research - A Methodology and Current Estimate of the Number of Children of Alcoholics in the United States" . In Abbott, Stephanie (ed.). Children of Alcoholics: Selected Readings (Volume II ed.). Rockville, MD: National Association for Children of Alcoholics (NACoA). pp.  1–22. ISBN   978-0-9645327-4-8.
  19. 1 2 3 Schoenborn, CA (September 1991). "Exposure to Alcoholism in the Family: United States, 1988". Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics. 30 (205): 1–13. ISSN   0147-3956. PMID   10114780.
  20. ↑ Hardwood, H; Fountain, D.; Livermore (1998). The Economic Costs of Alcohol and Drug Abuse in the United States, 1992 (Report). Rockville, MD: DHHS, NIH, NIDA, OSPC, NIAAA, OPA. NIH Publication No. 98-4327. Archived from the original on 6 January 2010. Retrieved 19 July 2008. Analysis by the Lewin Group
  21. 1 2 3 Ellis, Deborah, A.; Zucker, Robert A.; Fitzgerald, Hiram E. (1997). "The Role of Family Influences in Development and Risk" (PDF). Alcohol Health and Research World. 21 (3): 218–225. ISSN   0090-838X. PMC   6826803 . PMID   15706772. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 May 2010.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. 1 2 3 4 Jacob, Theodore; Johnson, Sheri (1997). "Parenting Influences on the Development of Alcohol Abuse and Dependence" (PDF). Alcohol Health and Research World. 21 (3): 204–209. ISSN   0090-838X. PMC   6826805 . PMID   15706770. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2010.
  23. ↑ Zucker, Robert A.; Kincaid, Stephen B.; Fitzgerald, Hiram E.; Bingham, Raymond (August 1995). "Alcohol Schema Acquisition in Preschoolers: Differences Between Children of Alcoholics and Children of Nonalcoholics" (PDF). Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 19 (4): 1011–1017. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1995.tb00982.x. hdl: 2027.42/65209 . ISSN   1530-0277. PMID   7485810.
  24. ↑ Finn, Peter, R.; Justus, Alicia (1997). "Physiological Responses in Sons of Alcoholics" (PDF). Alcohol Health and Research World. 21 (3): 227–231. ISSN   0090-838X. PMC   6826811 . PMID   15706773. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 19 July 2008.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ↑ Sher, Kenneth, J. (1997). "Psychological Characteristics of Children of Alcoholics" (PDF). Alcohol Health and Research World. 21 (3): 247–253. PMC   6826809 . PMID   15706777. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 May 2010.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ↑ Grant, Bridget F; Dawson, Deborah A; Stinson, Frederick S; Chou, S.Patricia; Dufour, Mary C; Pickering, Roger P (June 2004). "The 12-month prevalence and trends in DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence: United States, 1991–1992 and 2001–2002". Drug and Alcohol Dependence . 74 (3): 223–234. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.02.004.
  27. ↑ Goldman, David; Bergen, Andrew (1 November 1998). "General and Specific Inheritance of Substance Abuse and Alcoholism". Archives of General Psychiatry. 55 (11): 964. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.55.11.964. ISSN   0003-990X.
  28. ↑ McGue, Matt (1999). "The Behavioral Genetics of Alcoholism". Current Directions in Psychological Science . 8 (4): 109–115. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.0002.
  29. ↑ Bavolek, Stephen J.; Henderson, Hester L. (1990). "Child maltreatment and alcohol abuse: Comparisons and perspectives for treatment". In Potter, Ronald T.; Efron Patricia S. (eds.). Aggression, Family Violence and Chemical Dependency . Binghamton: Haworth Press. pp.  165–184. ISBN   978-0-86656-964-4.
  30. ↑ Daro, Deborah; McCurdy, Karen (April 1991). Current Trends in Child Abuse Reporting and Fatalities: The Results of the 1990 Annual Fifty State Survey. Working Paper Number 808 (Report). Chicago, Illinois: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. p. 34.
  31. ↑ Cloninger, C. Robert; Sigvardsson, Sören; Bohman, Michael (1996). "Type I and Type II alcoholism: An update" (PDF). Alcohol Health & Research World. 20 (1): 18–23. PMC   6876531 . PMID   31798167.
  32. ↑ Sher, Kenneth J. (1991). Children of alcoholics . United States: University of Chicago Press. ISBN   978-0-226-75271-6. OCLC   23176799.
  33. ↑ Sher, Kenneth J. (1991). "Chapter 6: Psychological Characteristics". Children of alcoholics . United States: University of Chicago Press. ISBN   978-0-226-75271-6. OCLC   23176799.
  34. ↑ Drejer, Kirsten; Theikjaard, Alice; Teasedale, Thomas W.; Schulsinger, Fini; Goodwin, Donald W. (November 1985). "A Prospective Study of Young Men at High Risk for Alcoholism: Neuropsychological Assessment". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 9 (6): 498–502. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1985.tb05590.x. ISSN   1530-0277. PMID   3911808.
  35. ↑ Gabrielli, W.F.; Mednic, S.A. (1983). "Intellectual performance in children of alcoholics". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 171 (7): 444–447. doi:10.1097/00005053-198307000-00009. ISSN   1539-736X. PMID   6864203.
  36. ↑ Schaefer, K.W.; Parsons, O.A.; Vohman, J.R. (July–August 1984). "Neuropsychological differences between male familial and non-familial alcoholics and non-alcoholics". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 8 (4): 347–351. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1984.tb05678.x. PMID   6385756.
  37. ↑ Tarter, Ralph E.; Hegedus, Andrea M.; Goldstein, Gerald; Shelly, Carolyn; Alterman, Arthur I. (March 1984). "Adolescent Sons of Alcoholics: Neuropsychological and Personality Characteristics". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 8 (2): 216–222. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1984.tb05842.x. ISSN   1530-0277. PMID   6375434.
  38. ↑ Wolin, S.J.; Bennett, L.A.; Noonan, D.L.; Teitelbaum M.A. (March 1980). "Disrupted family rituals: A factor in the intergenerational transmission of alcoholism". Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 41 (3): 199–214. doi:10.15288/jsa.1980.41.199. ISSN   0096-882X. PMID   7374140.
  39. ↑ O'Farrell, T. J.; Fals-Stewart, W. (2003). "ALCOHOL ABUSE". Journal of Marital and Family Therapy. 29 (1): 121–146. doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2003.tb00387.x. PMID   12616803.
  40. ↑ Bratek, Agnieszka; Beil, Julia; Banach, Monika; Jarząbek, Karolina; Krysta, Krzysztof (2013). "The Impact of Family Environment on the Development of Alcohol Dependence" (PDF). Psychiatria Danubina. 25 (Supplement 2): 74–77. PMID   23995149. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 April 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2018.
  41. ↑ Kaur, D.; Ajinkya, S. (2014). "Psychological impact of adult alcoholism on spouses and children". Medical Journal of Dr. D.Y. Patil University. 7 (2): 124–7. doi: 10.4103/0975-2870.126309 .
  42. ↑ Brown, Strega, Leslie, Susan (2015). Research as Resistance: Revisiting Critical, Indigenous, and Anti-Oppressive Approaches. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press Inc. p. 5. ISBN   978-1551308821.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. 1 2 3 4 Amodeo, Maryann; Griffin, Margaret; Paris, Ruth (2011). "Women's Reports of Negative, Neutral, and Positive Effects of Growing Up With Alcoholic Parents". Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services. 92 (1): 69–76. doi:10.1606/1044-3894.4062. S2CID   143817928.
  44. 1 2 Werner, E E (4 January 2015). "Resilient offspring of alcoholics: a longitudinal study from birth to age 18". Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 47 (1): 34–40. doi:10.15288/jsa.1986.47.34. PMID   3959559.
  45. 1 2 3 Wright, Deborah M.; Heppner, P. Paul (1993). "Examining the well-being of nonclinical college students: Is knowledge of the presence of parental alcoholism useful?". Journal of Counseling Psychology. 40 (3): 324–334. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.40.3.324.
  46. 1 2 Moser, Richard P.; Jacob, Theodore (1 January 1997). "Parent-child interactions and child outcomes as related to gender of alcoholic parent". Journal of Substance Abuse. 9: 189–208. doi:10.1016/S0899-3289(97)90016-X. PMID   9494949.
  47. 1 2 3 Harter, Stephanie Lewis (1 April 2000). "Psychosocial adjustment of adult children of alcoholics: A review of the recent empirical literature". Clinical Psychology Review. 20 (3): 311–337. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00084-1. PMID   10779897.
  48. ↑ Gandara, Patricia (16 May 1994). "Choosing Higher Education: Educationally Ambitious Chicanos and the Path to Social Mobility". Education Policy Analysis Archives. 2: 8. doi: 10.14507/epaa.v2n8.1994 . ISSN   1068-2341.
  49. ↑ Jacobson, Sandra W (1997). "Assessing the Impact of Maternal Drinking During and After Pregnancy" (PDF). Alcohol Health and Research World. 21 (3): 199–203. ISSN   0090-838X. PMC   6826808 . PMID   15706769. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
  50. 1 2 Larkby, Cynthia; Day, Nancy (1997). "The Effects of Prenatal Alcohol Exposure" (PDF). Alcohol Health and Research World. 21 (3): 192–197. ISSN   0090-838X. PMC   6826810 . PMID   15706768. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 December 2010. Retrieved 19 July 2008.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.