Alcohol consumption recommendations

Last updated

Recommendations for consumption of the drug alcohol (also known formally as ethanol) vary from recommendations to be alcohol-free to daily or weekly drinking "safe limits" or maximum intakes. Many governmental agencies and organizations have issued guidelines. These recommendations concerning maximum intake are distinct from any legal restrictions, for example countries with drunk driving laws or countries that have prohibited alcohol. To varying degrees, these recommendations are also distinct from the scientific evidence, such as the short-term and long-term effects of alcohol consumption. [1]

Contents

General recommendations

These guidelines apply to men and women who don't belong to populations with more specific advice.

Teetotalism advocacy by organization

Share of over-fifteen-year-old population who haven't drunk alcohol in the past year (interactive version); in most countries, it exceeds a third. Share of adults who have not drank alcohol in last year, OWID.svg
Share of over-fifteen-year-old population who haven't drunk alcohol in the past year (interactive version); in most countries, it exceeds a third.
Alcohol consumption per person in 2016. Consumption of alcohol is measured in liters of pure alcohol per person aged 15 or older. AlcoholPerCapita.jpg
Alcohol consumption per person in 2016. Consumption of alcohol is measured in liters of pure alcohol per person aged 15 or older.

Some governments set the same recommendation for both sexes, while others give separate limits. The guidelines give drink amounts in a variety of formats, such as standard drinks, fluid ounces, or milliliters, but have been converted to grams of ethanol for ease of comparison.

Approximately one-third of all countries advocate for complete alcohol abstinence, while all nations impose upper limits on alcohol consumption. Their daily limits range from 10-48 g per day for both men women, and weekly limits range from 27-196 g/week for men and 27-140 g/week for women. The weekly limits are lower than the daily limits, meaning intake on a particular day may be higher than one-seventh of the weekly amount, but consumption on other days of the week should be lower. The limits for women are often but not always lower than those for men.

Country (or region)Teetotalism recommendedLow riskMedium to risky drinkingHeavy drinkingDetails
DayWeekDayWeekDayWeekMonth
MenWomenMenWomenMenWomenMenWomenMenWomenMenWomenMenWomen
Australia40 g100 gReference. [9] [10]
Austria24 g16 g
Canada"Not drinking has benefits, such as better health, and better sleep." [11] 27 gThe Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction has a sliding scale of intakes.
The scale states that at 27 g or less per week, "you are likely to avoid alcohol-related consequences for yourself or others". [11]
Czech Republic24 g16 g
Denmark48 g120 gReference. [12]
Finland168 g84 gReference. [13]
GermanyAlcoholic beverages pose health risks and ideally should be avoided completely. [14] The German Centre for Addiction Issues recommends everyone to reduce alcohol consumption, regardless of the amounts consumed. [14]
Hong Kong20 g10 gReference. [15]
Iceland32 g"Stop drinking before reaching five drinks on the same occasion". 1 standard drink in Iceland = 8 g ethanol. 8 g x 4 drinks = 32 g. [16]
Ireland170 g140 gReference. [17]
Italy24 g12 gReference. [18]
Japan40 g20 gReference. [19]
NetherlandsRecommends an alcohol consumption level of zero grams.10 g"The Health Council of the Netherlands included a guideline for alcohol consumption in the Dutch dietary guidelines 2015 (DDG-2015), which is as follows: ‘Don’t drink alcohol or no more than one glass daily’." "In the Netherlands, one regular glass of an alcoholic beverage contains approximately 10 grammes (12 millilitre) alcohol." [20]
New Zealand30 g20 g150 g100 g50 g40 gAt least two alcohol-free days every week. 30 g for men, 20 g for women To reduce long-term health risks [21] 50 g for men, 40 g for women On any single occasion, to reduce risk of injury. [21]
Norway20 g10 gReference. [22]
Portugal37 g18.5 gReference. [23]
Spain30 g20 gAlso suggests a maximum of no more than twice this on any one occasion. [23]
Sweden"Not possible to specify a limit for risk-free alcohol consumption." [24] 48 g120 gThe National Board of Health and Welfare defines risky consumption as 10 (Swedish) standard drinks per week (120 g), and 4 standard drinks (48 g) or more per occasion, once per month or more often.
Alcohol intervention is offered for people who exceed these recommendations. [24]
Switzerland30 g20–24 gReference. [25]
United Kingdom"There's no completely safe level of drinking." [26] 112 g a week, spread across 3 days or more.Reference. [26]
USA"People who do not drink should not start drinking for any reason." (DGA) [27] "Adults of legal drinking age can choose not to drink." (DGA) [28] 14-28 g (1-2 US standard drinks) (DGA) [a] 14 g (1 US standard drink) (DGA) [a] 0.08% BAC (NIAAA), or 70 g (SAMHSA)0.08% BAC (NIAAA), or 56 g (SAMHSA)70 grams (5 US standard drinks) or more in a single day) (NIAAA)56 grams (4 US standard drinks) or more in a single day) (NIAAA)210 g (15 US standard drinks) (NIAAA)112 g (8 US standard drinks) (NIAAA)Five binge drinking sessions, each involving 70 grams (5 US standard drinks) of alcohol (SAMHSA).Five binge drinking sessions, each involving 56 grams (4 US standard drinks) of alcohol (SAMHSA)References: CDC. [29] NIAAA, SAMHSA. [30] 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans [a]
Notes
  1. 1 2 3 "The Committee recommended that adults limit alcohol intake to no more than 1 drink per day for both women and men for better health)" [31] "For those who choose to drink, intakes should be limited to 1 drink or less in a day for women and 2 drinks or less in a day for men, on days when alcohol is consumed." [28] "Alcohol has been found to increase risk for cancer, and for some types of cancer, the risk increases even at low levels of alcohol consumption (less than 1 drink in a day). Caution, therefore, is recommended." [28] "Drinking less is better for health than drinking more." [28]

By study

Emerging evidence suggests that "even drinking within the recommended limits may increase the overall risk of death from various causes, such as from several types of cancer". It is not clear that alcohol has any beneficial effects, [32] as the better health outcomes that some studies reported may be due not to alcohol consumption itself but instead be caused by "other differences in behaviors or genetics between people who drink moderately and people who don't". [33] At 20 g/day (1 large beer), the risk of developing an alcohol use disorder (AUD) is nearly 3 times higher than non-drinkers, and the risk of dying from an AUD is about 2 times higher than non-drinkers. [34] One systematic analysis found that "The level of alcohol consumption that minimised harm across health outcomes was zero (95% UI 0·0–0·8) standard drinks per week". [35] Supposing the apparent beneficial effects found in observational studies are genuine, these effects are maximized at relatively low levels of consumption, ranging from 1-18 g/day depending on age, location, and gender. [36]

Specific populations

Pregnant women

A label on alcoholic drinks promoting zero alcohol during pregnancy Zero alcool pendant la grossesse.svg
A label on alcoholic drinks promoting zero alcohol during pregnancy

Excessive drinking during pregnancy, especially in the first eight to twelve weeks, is associated with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders such as abnormal appearance and behavioral problems. Most guidelines state that no safe amount of alcohol consumption has been established and recommend that pregnant women abstain entirely from alcohol. [37] [38] As there may be some weeks between conception and confirmation of pregnancy, most guidelines also recommend that women trying or likely to become pregnant should avoid alcohol as well.

Breastfeeding women

Moderate alcohol consumption by breastfeeding mothers can significantly affect infants. Even one or two drinks, including beer, may reduce milk intake by 20 to 23%, leading to increased agitation and poor sleep patterns. Regular heavy drinking (more than two drinks daily) can shorten breastfeeding duration and cause issues in infants, such as excessive sedation, fluid retention, and hormonal imbalances. Additionally, higher alcohol consumption may negatively impact children's academic achievement. [49]

Minors

Countries have different recommendations concerning the administration of alcohol to minors by adults.

Former alcoholics

Elderly

Caveats

Risk factors

The recommended limits for daily or weekly consumption provided in the various countries' guidelines generally apply to the average healthy adult. However, many guidelines also set out numerous conditions under which alcohol intake should be further restricted or eliminated. They may stipulate that, among other things, people with liver, kidney, or other chronic disease, cancer risk factors, smaller body size, young or advanced age, those who have experienced issues with mental health, sleep disturbances, alcohol or drug dependency or who have a close family member who has, or who are taking medication that may interact with alcohol, [56] or suffering or recovering from an illness or accident, are urged to consider, in consultation with their health professionals, a different level of alcohol use, including reduction or abstention.

Activities

Furthermore, the maximum amounts allowed do not apply to those involved with activities such as operating vehicles or machinery, risky sports or other activities, or those responsible for the safety of others. [57] [58] [59]

Moreover, studies suggest even moderate alcohol consumption may significantly impair – neurobiologically beneficial and -demanding – exercise (possibly including the recovery and adaptation). [60] [61] [62] [63]

Drinking patterns

As of 2022, moderate consumption levels of alcoholic beverages are typically defined in terms of average consumption per day or week. However, drinking pattern (i.e. frequency, timing and dosage/intensity) is also significant. [33] Although countries define binge drinking in different ways, the consensus recommendation is to avoid any form of binge drinking pattern, in addition to not exceeding the daily or weekly limit. [64] Studies analyzing binge drinking have consistently found negative effects. Although there are few studies or guidelines on moderate consumption patterns, [65] the general advice is that one should spread out consumption as evenly as possible, if one is consuming a fixed amount. [26]

However, it is also easy, when drinking daily, to become habituated to alcohol's effects (consumption-induced tolerance). [66] Most people cannot accurately judge how much alcohol they are consuming, [67] particularly relative to the amounts specified in guidelines. Alcohol-free days provide a baseline and help people cut down on problematic drinking. [26] One review showed that among drinkers (not limited to moderate consumption levels), daily drinking in comparison to non-daily drinking was associated with incidence of liver cirrhosis. [68]

Alcohol promotion recommendations

Polymeal and most versions of the Mediterranean diet recommend a moderate amount of red wine, such as 150 mL (about one glass) every day, in combination with other several food items. Since about 2016, the American Heart Association and American Diabetes Association have recommended the Mediterranean diet as a healthy dietary pattern that may reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes, respectively. [69] [70] [71] [72] The United Kingdom's National Health Service also recommends a Mediterranean diet to reduce cardiovascular disease risk. [73] [74] The WHO has stated that there is currently no conclusive evidence that the potential benefits of moderate alcohol consumption for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes outweigh the increased cancer risk associated with these drinking levels for individual consumers. [75] A trial in Spain is expected to complete in 2028. [76]

Units and standard drinks

Guidelines generally give recommended amounts measured in grams (g) of pure alcohol per day or week. Some guidelines also express alcohol intake in standard drinks or units of alcohol. The size of a standard drink varies widely among the various guidelines, from 8g to 20g, as does the recommended number of standard drinks per day or week. [25] [77] The standard drink size is not meant as recommendations for how much alcohol a drink should contain, but rather to give a common reference that people can use for measuring their intake, though they may or may not correspond to a typical serving size in their country. [78]

See also

Related Research Articles

The long-term effects of alcohol have been extensively researched. The health effects of long-term alcohol consumption on health vary depending on the amount consumed. Even light drinking poses health risks, but atypically small amounts of alcohol may have health benefits. Alcoholism causes severe health consequences which outweigh any potential benefits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Drinking culture</span> Aspect of human behavior

Drinking culture is the set of traditions and social behaviours that surround the consumption of alcoholic beverages as a recreational drug and social lubricant. Although alcoholic beverages and social attitudes toward drinking vary around the world, nearly every civilization has independently discovered the processes of brewing beer, fermenting wine, and distilling spirits, among other practices. Many countries have developed their own regional cultures based on unique traditions around the fermentation and consumption of alcohol, which may also be known as a beer culture, wine culture etc. after a particularly prominent type of drink.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breast milk</span> Milk produced by the mammary glands in the breast of a female human

Breast milk or mother's milk is milk produced by the mammary glands in the breast of female humans. Breast milk is the primary source of nutrition for newborn infants, comprising fats, proteins, carbohydrates, and a varying composition of minerals and vitamins. Breast milk also contains substances that help protect an infant against infection and inflammation, such as symbiotic bacteria and other microorganisms and immunoglobulin A, whilst also contributing to the healthy development of the infant's immune system and gut microbiome.

Recurrent miscarriage or recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) is the spontaneous loss of 2-3 pregnancies that is estimated to affect up to 5% of women. The exact number of pregnancy losses and gestational weeks used to define RPL differs among medical societies. In the majority of cases, the exact cause of pregnancy loss is unexplained despite genetic testing and a thorough evaluation. When a cause for RPL is identified, almost half are attributed to a chromosomal abnormality. RPL has been associated with several risk factors including parental and genetic factors, congenital and acquired anatomical conditions, lifestyle factors, endocrine disorders, thrombophila, immunological factors, and infections. The American Society of Reproductive Medicine recommends a thorough evaluation after 2 consecutive pregnancy losses; however, this can differ from recommendations by other medical societies. RPL evaluation can be evaluated by numerous tests and imaging studies depending on the risk factors. These range from cytogenetic studies, blood tests for clotting disorders, hormone levels, diabetes screening, thyroid function tests, sperm analysis, antibody testing, and imaging studies. Treatment is typically tailored to the relevant risk factors and test findings. RPL can have a significant impact on the psychological well-being of couples and has been associated with higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. Therefore, it is recommended that appropriate screening and management be considered by medical providers.  

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder</span> Group of conditions resulting from maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) are a group of conditions that can occur in a person who is exposed to alcohol during gestation. FASD affects 1 in 20 Americans, but is highly mis- and under-diagnosed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Healthy diet</span> Type of diet

A healthy diet is a diet that maintains or improves overall health. A healthy diet provides the body with essential nutrition: fluid, macronutrients such as protein, micronutrients such as vitamins, and adequate fibre and food energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol and cardiovascular disease</span> Effects of alcohol consumption on cardiovascular health

In a 2018 study on 599,912 drinkers, a roughly linear association was found with alcohol consumption and a higher risk of stroke, coronary artery disease excluding myocardial infarction, heart failure, fatal hypertensive disease, and fatal aortic aneurysm, even for moderate drinkers. Alcohol abuse may also cause occupational cardiovascular disease. The American Heart Association states that people who are currently non-drinkers should not start drinking alcohol.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nutrition and pregnancy</span> Nutrient intake and dietary planning undertaken before, during and after pregnancy

Nutrition and pregnancy refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertaken before, during and after pregnancy. Nutrition of the fetus begins at conception. For this reason, the nutrition of the mother is important from before conception as well as throughout pregnancy and breastfeeding. An ever-increasing number of studies have shown that the nutrition of the mother will have an effect on the child, up to and including the risk for cancer, cardiovascular disease, hypertension and diabetes throughout life.

Alcohol has a number of effects on health. Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain, with increased risk of several types of cancer and alcohol use disorder. Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. There is an increased risk of developing an alcohol use disorder for teenagers while their brain is still developing. Adolescents who drink have a higher probability of injury including death.

A diabetic diet is a diet that is used by people with diabetes mellitus or high blood sugar to minimize symptoms and dangerous complications of long-term elevations in blood sugar.

Maternal health is the health of people during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. In most cases, maternal health encompasses the health care dimensions of family planning, preconception, prenatal, and postnatal care in order to ensure a positive and fulfilling experience. In other cases, maternal health can reduce maternal morbidity and mortality. Maternal health revolves around the health and wellness of pregnant individuals, particularly when they are pregnant, at the time they give birth, and during child-raising. WHO has indicated that even though motherhood has been considered as a fulfilling natural experience that is emotional to the mother, a high percentage of women develop health problems, sometimes resulting in death. Because of this, there is a need to invest in the health of women. The investment can be achieved in different ways, among the main ones being subsidizing the healthcare cost, education on maternal health, encouraging effective family planning, and checking up on the health of individuals who have given birth. Maternal morbidity and mortality particularly affects women of color and women living in low and lower-middle income countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breastfeeding difficulties</span> Medical condition

Breastfeeding difficulties refers to problems that arise from breastfeeding, the feeding of an infant or young child with milk from a woman's breasts. Although babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk, and human breast milk is usually the best source of nourishment for human infants, there are circumstances under which breastfeeding can be problematic, or even in rare instances, contraindicated.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) provide nutritional advice for Americans who are healthy or who are at risk for chronic disease but do not currently have chronic disease. The Guidelines are published every five years by the US Department of Agriculture, together with the US Department of Health and Human Services. Notably, the most recent ninth edition for 2020–25 includes dietary guidelines for children from birth to 23 months. In addition to the Dietary Guidelines per se, there are additional tools for assessing diet and nutrition, including the Healthy Eating Index (HEI), which can be used to assess the quality of a given selection of foods in the context of the Dietary Guidelines. Also provided are additional explanations regarding customization of the Guidelines to individual eating preferences, application of the Guidelines during pregnancy and infancy, the USDA Nutrition Evidence Systematic Review, information about the Nutrition Communicators Network and the MyPlate initiative, information from the National Academies about redesigning the process by which the Dietary Guidelines for Americans are created, and information about dietary guidelines from other nations.

Women should speak to their doctor or healthcare professional before starting or stopping any medications while pregnant. Drugs taken in pregnancy including over-the counter-medications, prescription medications, nutritional supplements, recreational drugs, and illicit drugs may cause harm to the mother or the unborn child. Non-essential drugs and medications should be avoided while pregnant. Tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and illicit drug use while pregnant may be dangerous for the unborn baby and may lead to severe health problems and/or birth defects. Even small amounts of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana have not been proven to be safe when taken while pregnant. In some cases, for example, if the mother has epilepsy or diabetes, the risk of stopping a medication may be worse than risks associated with taking the medication while pregnant. The mother's healthcare professional will help make these decisions about the safest way to protect the health of both the mother and unborn child. In addition to medications and substances, some dietary supplements are important for a healthy pregnancy, however, others may cause harm to the unborn child.

Neonatal withdrawal or neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) or neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS) is a withdrawal syndrome of infants, caused by the cessation of the administration of licit or illicit drugs. Tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal may occur as a result of repeated administration of drugs or even after short-term high-dose use—for example, during mechanical ventilation in intensive care units. There are two types of NAS: prenatal and postnatal. Prenatal NAS is caused by discontinuation of drugs taken by the pregnant mother, while postnatal NAS is caused by discontinuation of drugs directly to the infant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prenatal nutrition</span>

Prenatal nutrition addresses nutrient recommendations before and during pregnancy. Nutrition and weight management before and during pregnancy has a profound effect on the development of infants. This is a rather critical time for healthy development since infants rely heavily on maternal stores and nutrient for optimal growth and health outcome later in life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sweetened beverage</span> Type of beverage

Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) are beverages with added sugar. They have been described as "liquid candy". Added sugars include brown sugar, corn sweetener, corn syrup, dextrose, fructose, high fructose corn syrup, honey, invert sugar, lactose, malt syrup, maltose, molasses, raw sugar, sucrose, trehalose, and turbinado sugar. Naturally occurring sugars, such as those in fruit or milk, are not considered to be added sugars. Free sugars include monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol (drug)</span> Active ingredient in fermented drinks

Alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is the second most consumed psychoactive drug globally behind caffeine, and alcohol use disorders are the most prevalent of all substance use disorders worldwide. Alcohol is a central nervous system (CNS) depressant, decreasing electrical activity of neurons in the brain. The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies alcohol as a toxic, psychoactive, dependence-producing, and carcinogenic substance.

HIV in pregnancy is the presence of an HIV/AIDS infection in a woman while she is pregnant. There is a risk of HIV transmission from mother to child in three primary situations: pregnancy, childbirth, and while breastfeeding. This topic is important because the risk of viral transmission can be significantly reduced with appropriate medical intervention, and without treatment HIV/AIDS can cause significant illness and death in both the mother and child. This is exemplified by data from The Centers for Disease Control (CDC): In the United States and Puerto Rico between the years of 2014–2017, where prenatal care is generally accessible, there were 10,257 infants in the United States and Puerto Rico who were exposed to a maternal HIV infection in utero who did not become infected and 244 exposed infants who did become infected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sober curious</span> Cultural movement and lifestyle

Sober curious is a cultural movement and lifestyle of practicing none or limited alcohol consumption that started spreading in the late 2010s, in particular among people from the millennials generation, and was coined by Ruby Warrington in her 2019 book Sober Curious. It differs from traditional abstinence in that it is not founded on asceticism, religious condemnation of alcohol or previous alcohol abuse, but motivated by a curiosity of a sober lifestyle. Markets have reacted by offering a wider selection of non-alcoholic beverages.

References

Explanatory notes

    Citations

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    2. ↑ "No level of alcohol consumption is safe for our health". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 12 January 2023. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
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    4. ↑ Salamon, Maureen (1 May 2022). "Want a healthier heart? Seriously consider skipping the drinks". Harvard Health. Archived from the original on 31 May 2024. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
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    6. ↑ Mechanick, Jeffrey I.; Kushner, Robert F. (21 April 2016). Lifestyle Medicine: A Manual for Clinical Practice. Springer Science. p. 153. ISBN   978-3-319-24687-1. However, even light alcohol use (≤1 drink daily) increases the risk of developing cancer, and heavier use (≥2-4 drinks daily) significantly increases morbidity and mortality. Given these and other risks, the American Heart Association cautions that, if they do not already drink alcohol, people should not start drinking for the purported cardiovascular benefits of alcohol.
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    21. 1 2 Alcohol Advisory Council of New Zealand (ALAC) What's in a Standard Drink Archived 23 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
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    23. 1 2 Drinking and You Drinking guidelines — units of alcohol Archived 8 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
    24. 1 2 "Till hälso- och sjukvården: Nya gränser för riskbruk av alkohol". Socialstyrelsen (in Swedish). 15 December 2023.
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    27. 1 2 "What Are the U.S. Guidelines for Drinking? - Rethinking Drinking | NIAAA". rethinkingdrinking.niaaa.nih.gov.
    28. 1 2 3 4 https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/sites/default/files/2021-03/Dietary_Guidelines_for_Americans-2020-2025.pdf.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
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    33. 1 2 "Facts about moderate drinking | CDC". CDC. 19 April 2022. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
    34. ↑ Carr, Tessa; Kilian, Carolin; Llamosas-Falcón, Laura; Zhu, Yachen; Lasserre, Aurélie M.; Puka, Klajdi; Probst, Charlotte (2024). "The risk relationships between alcohol consumption, alcohol use disorder and alcohol use disorder mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Addiction. 119 (7): 1174–1187. doi:10.1111/add.16456. ISSN   0965-2140. PMC   11156554 . PMID   38450868.
    35. ↑ Griswold, Max G.; Fullman, Nancy; Hawley, Caitlin; et al. (22 September 2018). "Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016". The Lancet. 392 (10152): 1015–1035. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2. ISSN   0140-6736. PMC   6148333 . PMID   30146330.
    36. ↑ GBD 2020 Alcohol Collaboration (July 2022). "Population-level risks of alcohol consumption by amount, geography, age, sex, and year: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2020". The Lancet. 400 (10347): 185–235. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00847-9. PMC   9289789 . PMID   35843246.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
    37. ↑ NICE, Routine antenatal care for healthy pregnant women Archived 11 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine March 2007
    38. ↑ BBC 'No alcohol in pregnancy' advised Archived 30 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine 25 May 2007
    39. 1 2 National Health and Medical Research Council 2020 Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol Archived 13 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine
    40. 1 2 National Health and Medical Research Council 2009 Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol: Frequently Asked Questions Archived 13 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine
    41. ↑ Canadian Center on Substance Abuse Canada's Low-Risk Alcohol Drinking Guidelines Archived 20 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
    42. ↑ "Department of Health". Archived from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 16 September 2020.
    43. ↑ "Proper Nutrition during Pregnancy". Ministry of Health. State of Israel. Archived from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
    44. 1 2 New Zealand Ministry of Health Manatū Hauora Food and Nutrition Guidelines for Healthy Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women Archived 26 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
    45. ↑ "Alkovett for den lille" (PDF). avogtil.no/. AV OG TIL. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
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