Alcohol consumption recommendations

Last updated

Recommendations for consumption of the drug alcohol (also known formally as ethanol) vary from recommendations to be alcohol-free to daily or weekly drinking "safe limits" or maximum intakes. Many governmental agencies and organizations have issued guidelines. These recommendations concerning maximum intake are distinct from any legal restrictions, for example countries with drunk driving laws or countries that have prohibited alcohol. To varying degrees, these recommendations are also distinct from the scientific evidence, such as the short-term effects of alcohol consumption and long-term effects of alcohol consumption. [1]

Contents

General recommendations

These guidelines apply to men, and women who don't belong to the specific populations.

Teetotalism advocacy by organization

Share of over-fifteen-year-old population who haven't drunk alcohol in the past year (interactive version); in most countries, it exceeds a third. Share of adults who have not drank alcohol in last year, OWID.svg
Share of over-fifteen-year-old population who haven't drunk alcohol in the past year (interactive version); in most countries, it exceeds a third.

By country

Alcohol consumption per person in 2016. Consumption of alcohol is measured in liters of pure alcohol per person aged 15 or older. AlcoholPerCapita.jpg
Alcohol consumption per person in 2016. Consumption of alcohol is measured in liters of pure alcohol per person aged 15 or older.

Some governments set the same recommendation for both sexes, while others give separate limits. The guidelines give drink amounts in a variety of formats, such as standard drinks, fluid ounces, or milliliters, but have been converted to grams of ethanol for ease of comparison.

The daily limits range from 10-30 g per day for men and 10-24 g per day for women. Weekly limits range from 27-252 g/week for men and 27-168 g/week for women. The weekly limits are lower than the daily limits, meaning intake on a particular day may be higher than one-seventh of the weekly amount, but consumption on other days of the week should be lower. The limits for women are often but not always lower than those for men.

Country (or region)Teetotalism recommendedLow riskMedium to high riskDetails
DayWeekDayWeek
MenWomenMenWomenMenWomenMenWomen
Australia40 g100 gReference. [7] [8]
Austria24 g16 g
Canada"Not drinking has benefits, such as better health, and better sleep." [9] 27 gThe Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction has a sliding scale of intakes.
The scale states that at 27 g or less per week, "you are likely to avoid alcohol-related consequences for yourself or others". [9]
Czech Republic24 g16 g
Denmark48 g120 gReference. [10]
Finland168 g84 gReference. [11]
GermanyAlcoholic beverages pose health risks and ideally should be avoided completely. [12] The German Centre for Addiction Issues recommends everyone to reduce alcohol consumption, regardless of the amounts consumed. [12]
Hong Kong20 g10 gReference. [13]
Iceland32 g"Stop drinking before reaching five drinks on the same occasion". 1 standard drink in Iceland = 8 g ethanol. 8 g x 4 drinks = 32 g. [14]
Ireland170 g140 gReference. [15]
Italy24 g12 gReference. [16]
Japan40 g20 gReference. [17]
NetherlandsRecommends an alcohol consumption level of zero grams.10 gThe Health Council of the Netherlands recommends an alcohol consumption level of zero or no more than 10 g per day. [18]
New Zealand30 g20 g150 g100 g50 g40 gAt least two alcohol-free days every week. 30 g for men, 20 g for women To reduce long-term health risks [19] 50 g for men, 40 g for women On any single occasion, to reduce risk of injury. [19]
Norway20 g10 gReference. [20]
Portugal37 g18.5 gReference. [21]
Spain30 g20 gAlso suggests a maximum of no more than twice this on any one occasion. [21]
Sweden"Not possible to specify a limit for risk-free alcohol consumption." [22] 48 g120 gThe National Board of Health and Welfare defines risky consumption as 10 (Swedish) standard drinks per week (120 g), and 4 standard drinks (48 g) or more per occasion, once per month or more often.
Alcohol intervention is offered for people who exceed these recommendations. [22]



Switzerland30 g20–24 gReference. [18]
United Kingdom"There's no completely safe level of drinking." [23] 112 g a week, spread across 3 days or more.Reference. [23]
USA"People who do not drink should not start drinking for any reason." [24] 28 g14 g196 g98 gReference. [24]
Specific populations
Pregnant women
A label on alcoholic drinks promoting zero alcohol during pregnancy Zero alcool pendant la grossesse.svg
A label on alcoholic drinks promoting zero alcohol during pregnancy

Excessive drinking during pregnancy, especially in the first eight to twelve weeks, is associated with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders such as abnormal appearance and behavioral problems. Although low-to-moderate drinking of less than 12g/day is not known to significantly increase the chance of such disorders, [1] [25] most guidelines state that no safe amount of alcohol consumption has been established and recommend that pregnant women abstain entirely from alcohol. [26] [27] As there may be some weeks between conception and confirmation of pregnancy, most guidelines also recommend that women trying or likely to become pregnant should avoid alcohol as well.

  • Australia: Total abstinence during pregnancy and if planning a pregnancy [28] [29]
  • Canada: "Don't drink if you are pregnant or planning to become pregnant." [30]
  • France: Total abstinence [18]
  • Hong Kong: "Abstinence from alcohol during pregnancy is the safest choice." [31]
  • Iceland: Advise that pregnant women abstain from alcohol during pregnancy because no safe consumption level exists. [18]
  • Israel: Women should avoid consuming alcohol before and during pregnancy [18] [32]
  • The Netherlands: Abstinence [18]
  • New Zealand: "Women who are pregnant or planning to become pregnant should avoid drinking alcohol." [33]
  • Norway: Abstinence [18] [34]
  • Sweden: Abstinence. [35]
  • UK: Abstinence during pregnancy [36]
  • US: Total abstinence during pregnancy and while planning to become pregnant [37]
Breastfeeding women

"Alcohol passes to the baby in small amounts in breast milk. The milk will smell different to the baby and may affect their feeding, sleeping or digestion. The best advice is to avoid drinking shortly before a baby's feed." [38] "Alcohol inhibits a mother's let-down (the release of milk to the nipple). Studies have shown that babies take around 20% less milk if there's alcohol present, so they'll need to feed more often – although infants have been known to go on 'nursing strike', probably because of the altered taste of the milk." [39] "There is little research evidence available about the effect that [alcohol in breast milk] has on the baby, although practitioners report that, even at relatively low levels of drinking, it may reduce the amount of milk available and cause irritability, poor feeding and sleep disturbance in the infant. Given these concerns, a prudent approach is advised." [40]

  • Australia: Total abstinence advised [28] [29]
  • Hong Kong: "Avoid alcohol and alcoholic drinks." [41]
  • Iceland: Total abstinence advised because no safe consumption level exists.
  • New Zealand: Abstinence recommended, especially in the first month of breastfeeding so that sound breastfeeding patterns can be established. [33]
  • United Kingdom: Total abstinence advised by some, such as the Royal College of Midwives; others advise to limit alcohol to occasional use in small amounts not exceeding the recommended maximums for non-breastfeeding woman as this is known to cause harm, and that daily or binge drinking be avoided. [39]
Minors

Countries have different recommendations concerning the administration of alcohol to minors by adults.

  • United Kingdom: Children aged under 15 should never be given alcohol, even in small quantities. Children aged 15–17 should not be given alcohol on more than one day a week – and then only under supervision from carers or parents. [42] [43] [44]
Elderly
  • Italy: 12 g/day for men over 65. [16]
  • Japan: Less than 29 g/day for the elderly (and women). [18]

By study

According to a 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis, even at 20 g/day (1 large beer), the risk of developing an alcohol use disorder (AUD) is nearly 3 times higher than non-drinkers, and the risk of dying from an AUD is about 2 times higher than non-drinkers. [45]

Binge drinking

By country

Specific populations

Youths

Caveats

Risk factors

The recommended limits for daily or weekly consumption provided in the various countries' guidelines generally apply to the average healthy adult. However, many guidelines also set out numerous conditions under which alcohol intake should be further restricted or eliminated. They may stipulate that, among other things, people with liver, kidney, or other chronic disease, cancer risk factors, smaller body size, young or advanced age, those who have experienced issues with mental health, sleep disturbances, alcohol or drug dependency or who have a close family member who has, or who are taking medication that may interact with alcohol, [49] or suffering or recovering from an illness or accident, are urged to consider, in consultation with their health professionals, a different level of alcohol use, including reduction or abstention.

Activities

Furthermore, the maximum amounts allowed do not apply to those involved with activities such as operating vehicles or machinery, risky sports or other activities, or those responsible for the safety of others. [40] [50] [51]

Moreover, studies suggest even moderate alcohol consumption may significantly impair – neurobiologically beneficial and -demanding – exercise (possibly including the recovery and adaptation). [52] [53] [54] [55]

Daily consumption, habituation and addiction

As of 2022, moderate consumption levels of alcoholic beverages are typically defined in terms of average consumption per day. However, when drinking becomes a chronic daily activity the consumption puts individuals at an increased health risk [56] [ medical citation needed ][ additional citation(s) needed ] as it may lead to habituation, desensitization (consumption-induced tolerance), progressively increasing average dosages and addiction.[ citation needed ]

According to the CDC, it would be important to focus on the amount people drink on the days that they drink. [57] However, few studies or guidelines distinguish between or compare "moderate consumption" patterns (i.e. frequency, timing and dosage/intensity [58] per session) of occasional drinking and daily drinking.[ citation needed ]One review showed that among drinkers (not limited to moderate consumption levels), daily drinking in comparison to non-daily drinking was associated with incidence of liver cirrhosis. [59]

Harmful physiological effects

Emerging evidence suggests that "even drinking within the recommended limits may increase the overall risk of death from various causes, such as from several types of cancer". Better health outcomes among moderate drinkers that some studies reported may be due to the moderate alcohol consumption itself but they may also instead be caused by "other differences in behaviors or genetics between people who drink moderately and people who don't". According to the CDC, recent studies indicate moderate consumption may not have the protective health benefits. [57] A systematic analysis found that "The level of alcohol consumption that minimised harm across health outcomes was zero (95% UI 0·0–0·8) standard drinks per week". [60]

Units and standard drinks

Guidelines generally give recommended amounts measured in grams (g) of pure alcohol per day or week. Some guidelines also express alcohol intake in standard drinks or units of alcohol. The size of a standard drink varies widely among the various guidelines, from 8g to 20g, as does the recommended number of standard drinks per day or week. [18] [61] The standard drink size is not meant as recommendations for how much alcohol a drink should contain, but rather to give a common reference that people can use for measuring their intake, though they may or may not correspond to a typical serving size in their country. [62]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcoholism</span> Problematic excessive alcohol consumption

Alcoholism is the continued drinking of alcohol despite it causing problems. Some definitions require evidence of dependence and withdrawal. Problematic use of alcohol has been mentioned in the earliest historical records, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated there were 283 million people with alcohol use disorders worldwide as of 2016. The term alcoholism was first coined in 1852, but alcoholism and alcoholic are stigmatizing and discourage seeking treatment, so clinical diagnostic terms such as alcohol use disorder or alcohol dependence are used instead.

The health effects of long-term alcohol consumption on health vary depending on the amount of ethanol consumed. Even light drinking poses health risks, but small amounts of alcohol may also have health benefits. Chronic heavy drinking causes severe health consequences which outweigh any potential benefits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oily fish</span> Fish species with oils in their tissues and coelom

Oily fish are fish species with oil (fats) in soft tissues and in the coelomic cavity around the gut. Their fillets may contain up to 30% oil, although this figure varies both within and between species. Examples of oily fish include small forage fish such as sardines, herring and anchovies, and other larger pelagic fish such as salmon, trout, tuna, swordfish and mackerel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breast milk</span> Milk produced by the mammary glands in the breast of a human female

Breast milk or mother's milk is milk produced by the mammary glands in the breast of human females. Breast milk is the primary source of nutrition for newborn infants, comprising fats, proteins, carbohydrates, and a varying composition of minerals and vitamins. Breast milk also contains substances that help protect an infant against infection and inflammation, such as symbiotic bacteria and other microorganisms and immunoglobulin A, whilst also contributing to the healthy development of the infant's immune system and gut microbiome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Standard drink</span> Measure of the pure ethanol in an alcoholic beverage

A standard drink or unit of alcohol is a measure of alcohol consumption representing a fixed amount of pure alcohol. The notion is used in relation to recommendations about alcohol consumption and its relative risks to health. It helps to educate alcohol users. A hypothetical alcoholic beverage sized to one standard drink varies in volume depending on the alcohol concentration of the beverage, but it always contains the same amount of alcohol and therefore produces the same amount of drunkenness. Many government health guidelines specify low to high risk amounts in units of grams of pure alcohol per day, week, or single occasion. These government guidelines often illustrate these amounts as standard drinks of various beverages, with their serving sizes indicated. Although used for the same purpose, the definition of a standard drink varies from country to country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder</span> Group of conditions resulting from maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) are a group of conditions that can occur in a person who is exposed to alcohol during gestation, as a result of their mother drinking alcohol during pregnancy. The several forms of the condition are: fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), partial fetal alcohol syndrome (pFAS), alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), and neurobehavioral disorder associated with prenatal alcohol exposure (ND-PAE). Other terms used are fetal alcohol effects (FAE), partial fetal alcohol effects (PFAE), alcohol-related birth defects (ARBD), and static encephalopathy, but these terms have fallen out of favor and are no longer considered part of the spectrum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Healthy diet</span> Type of diet

A healthy diet is a diet that maintains or improves overall health. A healthy diet provides the body with essential nutrition: fluid, macronutrients such as protein, micronutrients such as vitamins, and adequate fibre and food energy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caffeine dependence</span> Medical condition

Caffeine dependence is a condition characterized by a set of criteria including tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to control use, and continued use despite knowledge of adverse consequences attributed to caffeine. It can appear in physical dependence or psychological dependence, or both. Caffeine is one of the most common additives in many consumer products, including pills and beverages such as caffeinated alcoholic beverages, energy drinks, pain reliever medications, and colas. Caffeine is found naturally in plants such as coffee and tea and other plants. Studies have found that 89 percent of adults in the U.S. consume on average 200 mg of caffeine daily. One area of concern that has been presented is the relationship between pregnancy and caffeine consumption. Repeated caffeine doses of 100mg appeared to result in smaller size at birth in newborns. When looking at birth weight however, caffeine consumption did not appear to make an impact.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol and cardiovascular disease</span> Effects of alcohol consumption on cardiovascular health

Excessive alcohol intake is associated with an elevated risk of alcoholic liver disease (ALD), heart failure, some cancers, and accidental injury, and is a leading cause of preventable death in industrialized countries. Some studies have suggested that one drink per day may have cardiovascular benefits. However, these studies are controversial, and the common view is that no level of alcohol consumption improves health. There is far more evidence for the harmful effects of alcohol than for any beneficial effects. It is also recognized that the alcohol industry may promote the unsubstantiated benefits of moderate drinking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol and cancer</span> Relationship between cancer and the consumption of alcohol

Alcohol causes cancers of the oesophagus, liver, breast, colon, oral cavity, rectum, pharynx, and larynx, and probably causes cancers of the pancreas. Consumption of alcohol in any quantity can cause cancer. The more alcohol is consumed, the higher the cancer risk, and no amount can be considered safe. Alcoholic beverages were classified as a Group 1 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in 1988. An estimated 3.6% of all cancer cases and 3.5% of cancer deaths worldwide are attributable to consumption of alcohol. 740,000 cases of cancer in 2020 or 4.1% of new cancer cases were attributed to alcohol.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nutrition and pregnancy</span> Nutrient intake and dietary planning undertaken before, during and after pregnancy

Nutrition and pregnancy refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertaken before, during and after pregnancy. Nutrition of the fetus begins at conception. For this reason, the nutrition of the mother is important from before conception as well as throughout pregnancy and breastfeeding. An ever-increasing number of studies have shown that the nutrition of the mother will have an effect on the child, up to and including the risk for cancer, cardiovascular disease, hypertension and diabetes throughout life.

Alcohol has a number of effects on health. Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain, several types of cancer and alcohol use disorder. Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. There is an increased risk of developing an alcohol use disorder for teenagers while their brain is still developing. Adolescents who drink have a higher probability of injury including death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health effects of wine</span> Potential health effects resulting from drinking wine

The health effects of wine are mainly determined by its active ingredient – alcohol. Preliminary studies found that drinking small quantities of wine, particularly of red wine, may be associated with a decreased risk of cardiovascular diseases, cognitive decline, stroke, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and early death. Other studies found no such effects.

A diabetic diet is a diet that is used by people with diabetes mellitus or high blood sugar to minimize symptoms and dangerous complications of long-term elevations in blood sugar.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) provide nutritional advice for Americans who are healthy or who are at risk for chronic disease but do not currently have chronic disease. The Guidelines are published every five years by the US Department of Agriculture, together with the US Department of Health and Human Services. Notably, the most recent ninth edition for 2020–25 includes dietary guidelines for children from birth to 23 months. In addition to the Dietary Guidelines per se, there are additional tools for assessing diet and nutrition, including the Healthy Eating Index (HEI), which can be used to assess the quality of a given selection of foods in the context of the Dietary Guidelines. Also provided are additional explanations regarding customization of the Guidelines to individual eating preferences, application of the Guidelines during pregnancy and infancy, the USDA Nutrition Evidence Systematic Review, information about the Nutrition Communicators Network and the MyPlate initiative, information from the National Academies about redesigning the process by which the Dietary Guidelines for Americans are created, and information about dietary guidelines from other nations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Binge drinking</span> Form of excessive alcohol intake

Binge drinking, or heavy episodic drinking, is drinking alcoholic beverages with an intention of becoming intoxicated by heavy consumption of alcohol over a short period of time, but definitions vary considerably.

Women should speak to their doctor or healthcare professional before starting or stopping any medications while pregnant. Non-essential drugs and medications should be avoided while pregnant. Tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and illicit drug use while pregnant may be dangerous for the unborn baby and may lead to severe health problems and/or birth defects. Even small amounts of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana have not been proven to be safe when taken while pregnant. In some cases, for example, if the mother has epilepsy or diabetes, the risk of stopping a medication may be worse than risks associated with taking the medication while pregnant. The mother's healthcare professional will help make these decisions about the safest way to protect the health of both the mother and unborn child. In addition to medications and substances, some dietary supplements are important for a healthy pregnancy, however, others may cause harm to the unborn child.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol in Australia</span> Public health issue in Australia

Alcohol is commonly consumed and available at pubs and liquor stores in Australia – all of which are private enterprises. Spirits can be purchased at liquor stores and pubs, whereas most grocery stores do not sell them, although they may have separate liquor stores on their premises. Alcohol consumption is higher, according to WHO studies, than in most European countries and several Central Asian and African countries, although consumption is just as high in Australia as in North America. After tobacco, alcohol is the second leading preventable cause of death and hospitalisation in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prenatal nutrition</span>

Prenatal nutrition addresses nutrient recommendations before and during pregnancy. Nutrition and weight management before and during pregnancy has a profound effect on the development of infants. This is a rather critical time for healthy development since infants rely heavily on maternal stores and nutrient for optimal growth and health outcome later in life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Breastfeeding contraindications</span>

Contraindications to breastfeeding are those conditions that could compromise the health of the infant if breast milk from their mother is consumed. Examples include galactosemia, untreated HIV, untreated active tuberculosis, Human T-lymphotropic virus 1 or II, uses illicit drugs, or mothers undergoing chemotherapy or radiation treatment.

References

Explanatory notes

    Citations

    1. 1 2 Armstrong, Elizabeth Mitchell (2017). "Making Sense of Advice About Drinking During Pregnancy: Does Evidence Even Matter?". The Journal of Perinatal Education. 26 (2): 65–69. doi:10.1891/1058-1243.26.2.65. PMC   6353268 . PMID   30723369.
    2. ↑ "No level of alcohol consumption is safe for our health". www.who.int. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
    3. ↑ "Less meat, more plant-based: Here are the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023". www.norden.org. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
    4. ↑ Mechanick, Jeffrey I.; Kushner, Robert F. (21 April 2016). Lifestyle Medicine: A Manual for Clinical Practice. Springer Science. p. 153. ISBN   978-3-319-24687-1. However, even light alcohol use (≤1 drink daily) increases the risk of developing cancer, and heavier use (≥2-4 drinks daily) significantly increases morbidity and mortality. Given these and other risks, the American Heart Association cautions that, if they do not already drink alcohol, people should not start drinking for the purported cardiovascular benefits of alcohol.
    5. ↑ Deedwania, Prakash (12 January 2015). "Alcohol and Heart Health". American Heart Association (AHA). Archived from the original on 21 January 2016. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
    6. ↑ "Alcohol consumption per person". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 16 March 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2020.
    7. ↑ "Managing your alcohol intake". 21 February 2024.
    8. ↑ "Australian guidelines to reduce health risks from drinking alcohol". Nhmrc.gov.au. 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2021.
    9. 1 2 "Canada's Guidance on Alcohol and Health". ccsa.ca. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
    10. ↑ https://sst.dk/da/borger/en-sund-hverdag/alkohol/anbefalinger-om-alkohol.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
    11. ↑ www.alko.fi https://www.alko.fi/vastuullisesti/alkoholi-ja-terveys/alkoholin-riskirajat.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
    12. 1 2 "Empfehlungen zum Umgang mit Alkohol" (PDF). Deutsche Hauptstelle für Suchtfragen (in German). Retrieved 30 October 2023.
    13. ↑ Department of Health Action Plan to Reduce Alcohol-related Harm in Hong Kong September 2011
    14. ↑ https://island.is/en/afengis-vimuvarnir.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
    15. ↑ "Health chiefs cut limits on safe drinking". Alcohol Action Ireland. 26 June 2012. Retrieved 1 March 2020.
    16. 1 2 Alcol, zero o il meno possibile January 2022
    17. ↑ https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2024/02/19/japan/science-health/japan-alcohol-consumption-guideline/.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
    18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Drinking Guidelines: General Population". IARD.org. International Alliance for Responsible Drinking. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
    19. 1 2 Alcohol Advisory Council of New Zealand (ALAC) What's in a Standard Drink
    20. ↑ https://www.helsedirektoratet.no/retningslinjer/forebygging-av-hjerte-og-karsykdom/kartlegging-av-levevaner-og-rad-om-livsstilstiltak-som-forebygging-av-hjerte-og-karsykdom/anbefaling-angaende-inntak-av-alkohol-ved-forebygging-av-hjerte-og-karsykdom.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
    21. 1 2 Drinking and You Drinking guidelines — units of alcohol Archived 8 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
    22. 1 2 "Nya gränsvärden för riskbruk av alkohol till hälso- och sjukvården". www.socialstyrelsen.se (in Swedish). 12 September 2023. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
    23. 1 2 "Drink less - Better Health". nhs.uk. 6 July 2021.
    24. 1 2 "What's low-risk drinking? - Rethinking Drinking - NIAAA".
    25. ↑ Flak, Audrey L.; Su, Su; Bertrand, Jacquelyn; Denny, Clark H.; Kesmodel, Ulrik S.; Cogswell, Mary E. (January 2014). "The Association of Mild, Moderate, and Binge Prenatal Alcohol Exposure and Child Neuropsychological Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 38 (1): 214–226. doi: 10.1111/acer.12214 . PMID   23905882.
    26. ↑ NICE, Routine antenatal care for healthy pregnant women March 2007
    27. ↑ BBC 'No alcohol in pregnancy' advised 25 May 2007
    28. 1 2 National Health and Medical Research Council 2020 Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol
    29. 1 2 National Health and Medical Research Council 2009 Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol: Frequently Asked Questions
    30. ↑ Canadian Center on Substance Abuse Canada's Low-Risk Alcohol Drinking Guidelines
    31. ↑ Department of Health
    32. ↑ "Proper Nutrition during Pregnancy". Ministry of Health. State of Israel. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
    33. 1 2 New Zealand Ministry of Health Manatū Hauora Food and Nutrition Guidelines for Healthy Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women
    34. ↑ "Alkovett for den lille" (PDF). avogtil.no/. AV OG TIL. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
    35. ↑ "Ej längre bruk av alkohol vid graviditet". roi.socialstyrelsen.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 24 September 2023.
    36. ↑ "New recommended drinking guidelines welcomed by NICE". www.nice.org.uk. 8 January 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
    37. ↑ 'USDA, Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, Chapter 9: Alcoholic Beverages Archived 1 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
    38. ↑ Alcohol and pregnancy
    39. 1 2 "Alcohol and breastfeeding (2009) - Retrieved 23 May 2014". Archived from the original on 12 November 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
    40. 1 2 Australian Guidelines 2009
    41. ↑ Family Health Service, Department of Health
    42. ↑ "Consultation on children, young people and alcohol". Dcsf.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
    43. ↑ Parents back alcohol free childhood 17 December 2009
    44. ↑ BBC 'No alcohol' urged for under-15s 29 January 2009
    45. ↑ Carr, T; Kilian, C; Llamosas-Falcón, L; Zhu, Y; Lasserre, AM; Puka, K; Probst, C. doi:10.1111/add.16456. PMID   38450868.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
    46. ↑ "Alcohol & Public Health: Fact Sheets - Binge Drinking". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 7 November 2012. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
    47. ↑ "Binge drinking". British Medical Association. March 2005. Archived from the original on 3 April 2005. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
    48. ↑ "Young and Smashed". SoShiok.com. 4 June 2008.[ dead link ]
    49. ↑ Weathermon R, Crabb DW (1999). "Alcohol and medication interactions" (PDF). Alcohol Res Health. 23 (1): 40–54. PMC   6761694 . PMID   10890797. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2007.
    50. ↑ Centre for Addiction and Mental Health / Centre de toxicomanie et de santé mentale Low-Risk Drinking Guidelines
    51. ↑ Alcohol Advisory Council of New Zealand (ALAC) Low Risk Drinking Archived 9 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine
    52. ↑ El-Sayed, Mahmoud S.; Ali, Nagia; Ali, Zeinab El-Sayed (1 March 2005). "Interaction Between Alcohol and Exercise". Sports Medicine. 35 (3): 257–269. doi:10.2165/00007256-200535030-00005. ISSN   1179-2035. PMID   15730339. S2CID   33487248.
    53. ↑ Barnes, Matthew. J.; Mündel, Toby; Stannard, Stephen. R. (1 January 2010). "Acute alcohol consumption aggravates the decline in muscle performance following strenuous eccentric exercise". Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 13 (1): 189–193. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2008.12.627. ISSN   1440-2440. PMID   19230764.
    54. ↑ Lakićević, Nemanja (September 2019). "The Effects of Alcohol Consumption on Recovery Following Resistance Exercise: A Systematic Review". Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology. 4 (3): 41. doi: 10.3390/jfmk4030041 . ISSN   2411-5142. PMC   7739274 . PMID   33467356.
    55. ↑ Vella, Luke D.; Cameron-Smith, David (August 2010). "Alcohol, Athletic Performance and Recovery". Nutrients. 2 (8): 781–789. doi: 10.3390/nu2080781 . ISSN   2072-6643. PMC   3257708 . PMID   22254055.
    56. ↑ "Mayo Clinic Q and A: Is daily drinking problem drinking?". Mayo Clinic News Network (in Spanish). 16 February 2018. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
    57. 1 2 "Facts about moderate drinking | CDC". CDC. 19 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
    58. ↑ Heckley, Gawain; Jarl, Johan; Gerdtham, Ulf-G (2017). "Frequency and intensity of alcohol consumption: new evidence from Sweden". The European Journal of Health Economics. 18 (4): 495–517. doi:10.1007/s10198-016-0805-2. ISSN   1618-7598. PMC   5387029 . PMID   27282872.
    59. ↑ Roerecke, Michael; Vafaei, Afshin; Hasan, Omer SM; Chrystoja, Bethany R; Cruz, Marcus; Lee, Roy; Neuman, Manuela G; Rehm, Jürgen (October 2019). "Alcohol consumption and risk of liver cirrhosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis". The American Journal of Gastroenterology. 114 (10): 1574–1586. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000000340. ISSN   0002-9270. PMC   6776700 . PMID   31464740.
    60. ↑ Griswold, Max G.; Fullman, Nancy; Hawley, Caitlin; et al. (22 September 2018). "Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016". The Lancet. 392 (10152): 1015–1035. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2. ISSN   0140-6736. PMC   6148333 . PMID   30146330.
    61. ↑ Kalinowski, Agnieszka; Humphreys, Keith (1 July 2016). "Governmental standard drink definitions and low-risk alcohol consumption guidelines in 37 countries". Addiction. 111 (7): 1293–1298. doi: 10.1111/add.13341 . ISSN   1360-0443. PMID   27073140.
    62. ↑ Mongan, Deirdre; Long, Jean (22 May 2015). "Standard drink measures throughout Europe; peoples' understanding of standard drinks and their use in drinking guidelines, alcohol surveys and labelling" (PDF). Reducing Alcohol Related Harm. p. 8. Retrieved 26 September 2017.
    This page is based on this Wikipedia article
    Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
    Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.