List of substances used in rituals

This page lists substances used in ritual context.

Psychoactive substances may be illegal to obtain, while non-psychoactive substances are legal, generally.

Psychoactive use

See also: List of psychoactive plants; List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals; and religion and drugs

This sections lists entheogens; drugs that are consumed for their intoxicating effect in combination with spiritual practice.

Hallucinogens used in rituals

This is a list of species and genera that are used as entheogens or are used in an entheogenic concoction (such as ayahuasca). For ritualistic use they may be classified as hallucinogens. The active principles and historical significance of each are also listed to illustrate the requirements necessary to be categorized as an entheogen. The psychoactive substances are usually classified as soft drugs in terms of drug harmfulness.

Animal

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
Bullet ant venom	Paraponera clavata	Secretion: Poneratoxin	Deliriant	The Satere-Mawe people use bullet ants to get extremely painful stings in their initiation rites twenty times. [1]
Colorado River toad bufotoxins	Incilius alvarius	Secretion: 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin (et al.)	Psychedelic	Bufo alvarious secretion has gained popularity in spiritual retreats. [2] Controversial interpretation of Mesoamerican art.

Mushroom

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
Dictyonema huaorani	Dictyonema huaorani	5-MeO-DMT, DMT, psilocybin	Psychedelic	Confirmed used by shamans. [3]
Fly agaric	Amanita muscaria	Muscimol, ibotenic acid	Depressant, and dissociative	Siberian shamans. [4] Scandinavia. Lithuania.
Panther cap	Amanita pantherina	Muscimol, ibotenic acid	Depressant, and dissociative	[ citation needed ]
Psilocybin mushroom	Psilocybe spp. (etc.)	Psilocybin and psilocin; baeocystin, norbaeocystin and aeruginascin (in trace amounts or in select species)	Psychedelic	Mazatec [5]

Plant

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
Angel's trumpet	Brugmansia spp.	Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids	Deliriant	South America, [6] sometimes used as part of ayahuasca.
Ayahuasca	Banisteriopsis caapi	Bark: Harmine 0.31-0.84%, [7] tetrahydroharmine, telepathine, dihydroshihunine, [8] 5-MeO-DMT [9]	Psychedelic	South America; people of the Amazon Rainforest. UDV of Brazil and United States.
Bolivian torch cactus	Echinopsis lageniformis	Stem: Mescaline	Psychedelic	South America
Brosimum acutifolium		Latex: Bufotenin	Psychedelic	Bufotenin has been identified as a component in the latex of the takini ( Brosimum acutifolium) tree, which is used as a psychedelic by South American shamans. [10]
Cannabis (and cannabis concentrates)	Cannabis spp.	Flower: Cannabinoids (THC, and CBD)	Psychedelic	Hindu religion in India, Rastafari movements, Cannabis-based religions like First Church of Cannabis or International Church of Cannabis and other various groups (see entheogenic use of cannabis)
Chacruna	Psychotria viridis	Leaf: DMT	Psychedelic	UDV of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and the Brazilian church. Santo Daime have used it as part of ayahuasca.
Chaliponga	Diplopterys cabrerana	Leaf: 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin, DMT	Psychedelic	Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru as part of ayahuasca.
Changa	A DMT/MAOI-infused smoking blend	DMT/MAOI	Psychedelic	Changa has gained popularity in spiritual retreats.[ citation needed ]
Christmasvine	Turbina corymbosa	Seed: LSA, lysergol, and turbicoryn; up to 0.03% lysergic acid alkaloids [11]	Psychedelic	Mazatec [12]
Harmal (espand, Syrian rue)	Peganum harmala	Seed: Harmaline and other harmala alkaloids	Psychedelic	Iran and the Middle East.
Hawaiian baby woodrose	Argyreia nervosa	Seed: 0.325% ergoline derivatives of dry weight. [13]	Psychedelic	Huna shamans used them according to various oral histories. [14]
Henbane	Hyoscyamus niger	Seed, flower, leaf: Tropane alkaloids	Deliriant	Ancient Greece and witches of the Middle Ages.
Iboga	Tabernanthe iboga	Root bark: Ibogaine [15]	Psychedelic	Bwiti religion of West Central Africa. Used by Western nations to treat opioid addiction.
Jimsonweed	Datura stramonium	Seed, flower, leaf: [16] tropane alkaloids: atropine ~0.1 hyoscyamine up to 0.05% Scopolamine up to 0.3%	Deliriant	Algonquin, Navajo, Cherokee, Luiseño and the indigenous peoples of Marie-Galante used this plant in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties. [17] [18] [19] It has also been used by Sadhus of India, and the Táltos of the Magyar (Hungary).
Jurema	Mimosa tenuiflora syn. Mimosa hostilis	Root bark: 1-1.7% DMT and yuremamine	Psychedelic	Used by the Jurema Cult (O Culto da Jurema) in the Northeastern Brazil. [20] [21]
Labrador tea	Rhododendron spp.	Leaf: Ledol, some grayanotoxins	Deliriant	Caucasian peasants used Rhododendron plants for these effects in shamanistic rituals. [22]
Mad honey	Rhododendron ponticum	Nectar: Grayanotoxins	Deliriant	In Nepal, this type of honey is used by the Gurung people both for its supposed medicinal and hallucinogenic properties. [23] [24]
Mexican morning glory	Ipomoea tricolor	Seed: Ergoline derivatives [25] [ failed verification ] (LSA disputed)	Psychedelic	Zapotecs [26]
Beach moonflower	Ipomoea violacea	Seed: Ergoline derivatives [27] [ failed verification ] (LSA disputed)	Psychedelic	Mazatec [12]
Nyakwána	Virola elongata	Bark, roots, leaves and flowers: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT	Psychedelic	The Yanomami people use the powdered resin as an entheogen known as nyakwána which is inhaled or "snuffed" into the nasal cavity, it contains a high concentration of 5-MeO-DMT and DMT. [28]
Peruvian torch cactus	Echinopsis peruviana	Stem: Mescaline	Psychedelic	Pre-Incan Chavín rituals in Peru.
Peyote	Lophophora williamsii	Stem: Mescaline	Psychedelic	Native American Church is known as peyotism. [29] [30] Also used in the Oshara tradition.
Red ucuuba	Virola sebifera	Bark: DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT	Psychedelic	The smoke of the inner bark of the tree is used by shamans of the indigenous people of Venezuela in cases of fever conditions, or cooked for driving out evil ghosts. [31]
Salvia	Salvia divinorum	Leaf: Salvinorin A and other salvinorins	Psychedelic	Mazatec [32]
San Pedro cactus	Trichocereus macrogonus var. pachanoi (syn. Echinopsis pachanoi)	Stem: Mescaline	Psychedelic	South America
Vilca	Anadenanthera colubrina	Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 12.4% bufotenin. [33] DMT	Psychedelic	There have been reports of active use of vilca by Wichi shamans, under the name hatáj. [34]
Yopo	Anadenanthera peregrina	Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 7.4% bufotenin. [33] DMT	Psychedelic	Archaeological evidence of insufflation use within the period 500-1000 AD, in northern Chile, has been reported. [35]

Chemicals

Many man-made chemicals with little human history have been recognized to catalyze intense spiritual experiences, and many synthetic entheogens are simply slight modifications of their naturally occurring counterparts. Some synthetic substances like 4-AcO-DMT are thought to be prodrugs that metabolize into psychoactive substances that have been used as entheogens. While synthetic DMT and mescaline are reported to have identical entheogenic qualities as extracted or plant-based sources, the experience may wildly vary due to the lack of numerous psychoactive alkaloids that constitute the material. This is similar to how isolated THC produces very different effects than an extract that retains the many cannabinoids of the plant such as cannabidiol and cannabinol. A pharmaceutical version of the entheogenic brew ayahuasca is called Pharmahuasca .

Substance	IUPAC name	Substance effect class	Notes
2C-B	4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylethanamine	Psychedelic	There are claims that 2C-B is used as entheogen by the Sangoma, Nyanga, and Amagqirha people over their traditional plants. It is referred to as Ubulawu Nomathotholo, which roughly translates to "Medicine of the Singing Ancestors". [36] [37] [38]
5-MeO-DMT	2-(5-Methoxy-1H-indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethan-2-amine	Psychedelic	See species
Bufotenin	3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-5-ol	Psychedelic	See species
DMT	2-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethanamine	Psychedelic	See species
DPT	N-[2-(1H-indol-3-yl)]ethyl-N-propylpropan-1-amine	Psychedelic	DPT is used as a religious sacrament by the Temple of the True Inner Light who believes that DPT and other entheogens are physical manifestations of God. [39]
Harmaline	7-methoxy-1-methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole	Psychedelic	See Peganum harmala
Ibogaine	12-Methoxyibogamine	Psychedelic	See Tabernanthe iboga
Ketamine		Dissociative	Ketamine psychedelic therapy (KPT) have been used for preparation for death (thanatological, death-rebirth psychotherapy) [40]
LSA	(8β)-9,10-didehydro-6-methyl-ergoline-8-carboxamide	Psychedelic	See species
LSD	(6aR,9R)-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide	Psychedelic	Used by League for Spiritual Discovery (LSD), and the Neo-American Church.
MDMA	(RS)-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine	Entactogen	Small doses of MDMA are used as an entheogen to enhance prayer or meditation by some religious practitioners. [41]
Muscimol	5-(Aminomethyl)-isoxazol-3-ol	Deliriant	See Amanita spp.
Psilocybin	[3-(2-Dimethylaminoethyl)-1H-indol-4-yl] dihydrogen phosphate	Psychedelic	(See also Psilocybe spp) Prodrug for Psilocin. The Mazatec curandera María Sabina was celebrating a mushroom velada with pills of synthetic psilocybin named Indocybin synthesized by Albert Hofmann. [42]
Salvinorin A	methyl (2S,4aR,6aR,7R,9S,10aS,10bR)-9-(acetyloxy)-2-(furan-3-yl)-6a,10b-dimethyl-4,10-dioxo-dodecahydro-1H-naphtho[2,1-c]pyran-7-carboxylate	Psychedelic	See Salvia divinorum

Prodrugs

Substance	IUPAC name	Substance effect class	Notes
1A-LSD	(6aR,9R)-4-acetyl-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide	Psychedelic	Prodrug (suspected) for LSD
1P-LSD	(6aR,9R)-N,N-Diethyl-7-methyl-4-propanoyl-6,6a,8,9-tetrahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide	Psychedelic	Prodrug (suspected) for LSD. In tests on mice 1cP-LSD was found to be an active psychedelic with similar potency to 1P-LSD. [43]
4-AcO-DMT	3-[2-(Dimethylamino)ethyl]-1H-indol-4-yl acetate	Psychedelic	Prodrug for psilocin (found in psilocybin mushroom, see also psilocybin)

This page lists non-psychedelic psychoactive substances which are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Non-psychoactive consumption like symbolic ingestion of psychoactive substances is not mentioned here.

Non-hallucinogenic substances used in rituals

This is a list of psychoactive substances which are consumed in ritual contexts for their consciousness-altering effects. Some of these drugs are classified as hard drugs in terms of drug harmfulness.

Plant

The plant parts are listed to prevent accidents. For example, kava roots should always be used because the leaves of the plant are known to cause hepatoxicity and death. ^[44]

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
African dream herb	Entada rheedii	Seed	Oneirogen	The species is employed in African traditional medicine to induce vivid dreams, enabling communication with the spirit world. The inner meat of the seed would be either consumed directly, or the meat would be chopped, dried, mixed with other herbs like tobacco and smoked just before sleep to induce the desired dreams. [45]
African dream root	Silene undulata	Root: Possibly triterpenoid saponins	Oneirogen	Xhosa people of South Africa. [46]
Aztec tobacco	Nicotiana rustica	Leaf: up to 9% nicotine. [47] MAOI beta-carbolines.	Stimulant	Mapacho (South America) [48] and thuoc lao (thuốc lào) (Vietnam). Nicotiana rustica is used by Amazonian tobacco shamans known as tobaqueros. [49] Nicotiana tabacum juice is sometimes a vernacular added ingredient. [50]
Bitter-grass	Calea ternifolia	Leaf: Caleicines and caleochromenes	Oneirogen	The Chontal people of Oaxaca reportedly use the plant, known locally as thle-pela-kano, during divination. [51]
Blue water lily	Nymphaea caerulea	Flower: Aporphine, and nuciferine	Depressant	Mayans and the Ancient Egyptians. [52]
Chili pepper	Capsicum spp.	Fruit: Capsaicin	Deliriant	"While the Inca may have recognized chili's potent spiritual medicine, they weren't the only culture to do so. Chilies were mixed with tobacco and other plants by shamans and medicine people in pre-Columbian Central America to aid in journeys to the upper and lower worlds on behalf of mankind." [53]
Coca, coca tea	Erythroxylaceae spp.	Leaf: 0.3-1.5% cocaine [54]	Stimulant	Coca has been a vital part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, northern Argentina, and Chile from the pre-Inca period through the present. [ citation needed ] In addition, coca use in shamanic rituals is well documented wherever local native populations have cultivated the plant. For example, the Tairona people of Colombia's Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta use to chew the plant before engaging in extended meditation and prayer. [55]
Cocoa	Theobroma cacao	Bean: Theobromine, small amount of MAOIs	Stimulant	Ritualistic practices originated among the Olmec, Maya and Mexica (Aztec). [56]
Coffee	Coffea spp.	Seed: [57] caffeine 0.06-3.2%	Stimulant	The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the 15th century, in Yemen's Sufi monasteries. [58] The Sufi monks drank coffee as an aid to concentration and even spiritual intoxication when they chanted the name of God. [59]
Ilex guayusa	Ilex guayusa	Leaves: 1.73–3.48 % caffeine. [60] Theanine	Stimulant	A ritual use by the Quechua people involves drinking guayusa infusion to have foretelling dreams for successful hunting expeditions. [61] Ilex guayusa is used in ayahuasca admixtures for its healing powers. [62]
Kava	Piper methysticum	Root: [63] 3-20% kavalactones	Depressant	Kava cultures are the religious and cultural traditions of western Oceania which consume kava.
Khat	Catha edulis	Leaf: [64] cathine up to 14% [65] [66]	Stimulant	For centuries, religious leaders have consumed the leaves to stay awake during long nights of prayer. [67]
Kratom	Mitragyna speciosa	Leaves: Opioids (1–6% mitragynine, 0.01–0.04% 7-hydroxymitragynine [68] )	Depressant	In Thailand, kratom was "used as a snack to receive guests and was part of the ritual worship of ancestors and gods." (Saingam et al.) [69]
Opium, Opium poppy	Papaver somniferum	Latex exudate: [70] morphine 0.3–25% and codeine 0.5–4%	Depressant	From the earliest finds, opium appears to have had ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power. [71] In Egypt, the use of opium was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors, its invention is credited to Thoth, and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache. [72] A figure of the Minoan "goddess of the narcotics", wearing a crown of three opium poppies, BCE, was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, together with a simple smoking apparatus. [73] [74] The Greek gods Hypnos (Sleep), Nyx (Night), and Thanatos (Death) were depicted wreathed in poppies or holding them. Poppies also frequently adorned statues of Apollo, Asklepios, Pluto, Demeter, Aphrodite, Kybele and Isis, symbolizing nocturnal oblivion. [72] The opium poppy was a magical ritual plant among the Germanic tribes. [75] [ better source needed ]
Pituri	Duboisia hopwoodii , Duboisia myoporoides , Nicotiana spp.	Nicotine, tropane alkaloids	Stimulant	Pituri, also known as mingkulpa, [76] is a mixture of leaves and wood ash traditionally chewed as a stimulant (or, after extended use, a depressant) by Aboriginal Australians widely across the continent.
Tea	Camellia sinensis	Leaf: [77] caffeine  0.4‍–‍9.3% theanine  0.5‍–‍1.4% theobromine  0.05‍–‍0.1%	Stimulant	See tea culture. For example, East Asian tea ceremony is a ritualized practice of making and serving tea (茶 cha) in East Asia practiced in the Sinosphere. Tea has been drunk by Buddhist monks since the Sui Dynasty (589–618 BC) to maintain a state of "mindful alertness" during long periods of meditation. Tea ceremonies have been ritualized for centuries.[ citation needed ]

Alcohol

See also: History of alcoholic drinks § Pre-Columbian America, and Religion and alcohol § Historical religions

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
Alcoholic beverages	Yeast byproduct: Alcohol fermented species	Alcohol	Depressant	Christian views on alcohol encompass a range of perspectives regarding the consumption of alcoholic beverages, with significant emphasis on moderation rather than total abstinence. The moderationist position is held by Roman Catholics [78] and Eastern Orthodox, [79] and within Protestantism, it is accepted by Anglicans, [80] Lutherans [81] [82] and many Reformed churches. [83] [84] [85] [86] Moderationism is also accepted by Jehovah's Witnesses. [87] In the Vodou faith of Haiti, alcoholic drinks such as rum are consumed to be able to allow spirits called "lwa" to enter one's body and help them find the motivation for or strength to survive everyday struggles or life. [88] In Vajrayana Buddhism, particularly in Tibetan Buddhist practices, alcohol may be used during specific rituals, such as the Ganachakra feast. This ritual involves the consumption of alcohol in a controlled manner, symbolizing the transformation of negative emotions and attachments into wisdom and compassion. [89] [90] [91] In Taoist rituals and practices, alcohol also plays a role as an offering and a means of connecting with the divine. An alcoholic beverage is often used in religious ceremonies and as an offering to the ancestors. The use of alcohol in Taoist rituals can symbolize purification, blessings, and the establishment of a sacred space. In these instances, the consumption of alcohol is done in a controlled and mindful manner, reflecting the Taoist emphasis on balance and harmony. Some Hindu denominations, like the Aghori, incorporate alcohol into their rituals and practices. [92] [93] The Maya ritually administered alcohol enemas as an entheogen, sometimes adding other psychoactive substances, seeking to reach a state of ecstasy. Syringes of gourd and clay were used to inject the fluid. [94] Alcohol replaced peyote as Native Americans' psychoactive agent of choice in rituals when peyote was outlawed. [95]
Balché		Alcohol	Depressant	The Maya also consumed an alcoholic beverage called balché, which is an infusion of the bark of Lonchocarpus longistylus (see page Lonchocarpus violaceus ) mixed with honey from bees fed on a type of morning glory with a high ergine content. [96]
Beer	Yeast byproduct: Barley ( Liquid Gold spp.) (fermented)	Alcohol	Depressant	The earliest archaeological evidence of fermentation consists of 13,000-year-old residues of a beer with the consistency of gruel, used by the semi-nomadic Natufians for ritual feasting, at the Raqefet Cave in the Carmel Mountains near Haifa in Israel. [97] [98]
Chicha	Yeast byproduct: Corn (Zea mays), fermented	Alcohol	Depressant	The corn beer Chicha de jora was once a sacred drink of the Incas, often reserved for the most cherished of ceremonies. [99]
Kosher wine	Yeast byproduct: Alcohol fermented species	Alcohol	Depressant	During the Jewish holiday of Purim, Jews are obligated to drink until their judgmental abilities become impaired. [100] [101] However, Purim has more of a national than a religious character.
Mead		Alcohol	Depressant	In the Norse religion the drinking of ales and meads was important in several seasonal religious festivals such as Yule and Midsummer as well as more common festivities like wakes, christenings and ritual sacrifices called Blóts. [102]
Pulque		Alcohol	Depressant	Before the Spanish colonization of the Americas, pulque was used for religious ceremonies in Mesoamerica, but after the Spanish conquest, pulque consumption lost its ritual meanings. [103] [104]
Rakia	Collective term for fruit spirits (or fruit brandy) popular in the Balkans.	Alcohol	Depressant	Although wine is the essential part of the Eucharist rite in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches in the region, rakia has found uses in certain religious and related rituals across the Balkans.[ citation needed ] It is also used as a sacramental element in Bektashi and Alevi Jem ceremonies, where it is not considered alcoholic and is referred to as "dem". [105]
Sake		Alcohol	Depressant	Sake is often consumed as part of Shinto purification rituals. [106] Sakes served to gods as offerings prior to drinking are called Omiki (お神酒). [107] People drink Omiki with gods to communicate with them and to solicit rich harvests the following year.
Tesgüino		Alcohol	Depressant	Tesguino is a corn beer made by the Tarahumara people of the Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico. It is brewed for local celebrations related to Holy Week. For the Tarahumara, the beer is an elixir for healing, a barter item and is considered a sacred beverage. [108] The Tarahumara people gather every year during Easter week (semana santa) and drink large amounts of Tesgüino together while following rituals. According to the anthropologist Bill Merrill of the Smithsonian Institution, the sacred drink chases large souls from the persons who drink it, "and so when people get drunk that's why they act like children [...] because the souls that are controlling their actions are the little souls, like little children". [109]
Wine	Yeast byproduct: Grape ( Vitis spp.) (fermented)	Alcohol	Depressant	Wine was used in rituals and worshipped by the Egyptians [110] and the Greeks, specifically in worship of Dionysus. The Thelema ceremony calls for five officers: a Priest, a Priestess, a Deacon, and two adult acolytes, called "the Children". The end of the ritual culminates in the consummation of the eucharist, consisting of a goblet of wine and a Cake of Light, after which the congregant proclaims "There is no part of me that is not of the gods!" [111]

Chemicals

Substance	IUPAC name	Substance effect class	Notes
Alcohol	Ethanol	Depressant	See Vitis spp.
Caffeine	1,3,7-Trimethylpurine-2,6-dione	Stimulant	See Coffea
Cathine	(1S,2S)-2-amino-1-phenylpropan-1-ol	Stimulant	See Catha edulis
Cocaine	Methyl (1R,2R,3S,5S)-3-(benzoyloxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate	Stimulant	Coca addicts ingest between 60 and 80 milligrams of cocaine each time they chew the leaves according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). [112] However, other sources claim that the coca leaf, when consumed in its natural form or as coca tea, does not induce a physiological or psychological dependence, nor does abstinence after long-term use produce symptoms typical for substance addiction withdrawal syndromes. [113] [114] [115] [116] See also Erythroxylum coca, and Erythroxylum novogranatense spp.
Codeine	(5α,6α)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-3-methoxy-17-methylmorphinan-6-ol	Depressant	Prodrug for morphine
Kavalactones		Depressant	See Piper methysticum
Morphine	(4R,4aR,7S,7aR,12bS)-3-Methyl-2,3,4,4a,7,7a-hexahydro-1H-4,12-methanobenzofuro[3,2-e]isoquinoline-7,9-diol	Depressant	See Papaver somniferum

Poly drug use

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
Alcohol + vilca	Anadenanthera colubrina	Beans: 5-MeO-DMT. Up to 12.4% bufotenin. [33] DMT	Psychedelic + depressant	Between 2013 and 2017, archaeological excavations at the Quilcapampa site in southern Peru, found that the Wari used seeds from the vilca tree and combined the hallucinogenic drug with chicha, or beer made from the molle tree. [117]
Psilocybin mushroom + cocoa [ dubious – discuss ]	Theobroma cacao	Bean: Theobromine, small amount of MAOIs	Stimulant	Aztecs combined cacao with psilocybin mushrooms to yield a polysubstance combination [ citation needed ]

Alternative medicine

Animal

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
Kambo (or sapo)	Phyllomedusa bicolor	Secretion: Opioid peptides (deltorphin, deltorphin I, deltorphin II and dermorphin). [118] [119] [120]	Depressant	Increasing popularity in cleansing rituals and depression treatment. [121] [122] [123]

Complements to psychoactive substances

Vernacular name	Species	Phytochemical(s)	Substance effect class	Regions/Cultures of use
Aztec tobacco	Nicotiana rustica	Incense		Nicotiana rustica is used—as incense–in association with Ayahuasca ritual in some parts of the Amazon. [50]

Sober use

See also: Sacred food as offering and List of foods with religious symbolism

Non-psychoactive substances

See also: Religious use of incense and Sacrament § Summary table

Vernacular name	Species	Use	Regions/Cultures of use
Chrism, also called myrrh, and holy anointing oil		Element in anointing of the sick, baptism, and priesthood blessing	Sacramental olive oil. Use in the Roman Catholic Church: Anointing of the Sick in the Catholic Church, and Oil of Catechumens. Use by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: Priesthood blessing
Copal	Bursera fagaroides	Religious use of incense	Used by Aztec, and Maya, in ritual ceremonies. [124]
Holy water		Element in baptism, exorcism, and Epiphany	Exorcism in the Catholic Church, holy water in Eastern Christianity, holy water in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Holy water is important to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and regarded as healing from demonic possession and for treating sick people, particularly in cases of mental illness. It can be consumed or poured over someone supposed to be afflicted by harmful things. [125] [126] Most Mahayana Buddhists typically recite sutras or various mantras (typically that of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara for example) numerous times over the water, which is then either consumed or is used to bless homes afterwards. In Vajrayana Buddhism, a Bumpa , a ritual object, is one of the Ashtamangala , used for storing sacred water sometimes, symbolizing wisdom and long life. [127] [128]
Liquids		Libation	The drink offering (Hebrew ְנֶסֶך, nesekh) was a form of libation forming one of the sacrifices and offerings of the Law of Moses.
Sacramental bread, sacramental wine		Elements of the Eucharist	In the Christian ceremony the sacramental bread is either leavened or unleavened, and the wine is non-alcoholic and often red.
White Sage	Salvia apiana	Ritual purification	Different parts of the plant are used in ritual purification by several Native American cultures. [129]

Psychoactive substances

Shown in the table below, Aztec tobacco, morning glories, and Syrian rue (also listed in the § Psychoactive use table), and cacao beans are (mildly) psychoactive when consumed.

Psychedelic substances used in sober rituals

Flora

Vernacular name	Species	Use	Regions/Cultures of use
Morning glory	T. corymbosa, and Ipomoea violacea	Numerology	"indigenous ritual use indicates dose levels for T. corymbosa, and I. violacea which are far lower than that perceived as necessary to effect hallucinosis in members of modern Western cultures. In Mexico, the only place in the world where the ingestion of morning glory seeds has an established tradition of shamanic usage, a hallucinogenic dose is said to be only thirteen seeds, a ritual amount based on religious numerology rather than chemical analysis." [130] [ page needed ]
Syrian rue	Peganum harmala	Incense	"In the Himalayas, shamans use syrian rue seeds as a magical incense, inhaling it to enter a trance state in which they can engage in sexual intercourse with divining goddesses, who are said to give them information and great healing powers" [131] [132]

Non-psychedelic substances used in sober rituals

Vernacular name	Species	Use	Regions/Cultures of use
Cacao bean	Theobroma cacao	Sacrifice	[ citation needed ]
Coca leaves		Sacrifice	Sometimes coca leaves from the plant were used as offerings in rituals. Due to the nature of politics and religion in the Inca Empire, wealthy inhabitants handed out coca leaves during ritual ceremonies. [133]

Alcohol

Vernacular name	Species	Use	Regions/Cultures of use
Alcohol (liquor), and tobacco		Ofrenda	An ofrenda (Spanish: "offering") is the offering placed in a home altar during the annual and traditionally Mexican Día de los Muertos celebration. An ofrenda, which may be quite large and elaborate, is usually created by the family members of a person who has died and is intended to welcome the deceased to the altar setting. For deceased adults, the ofrenda might include a bottle or poured shot glasses of tequila or mezcal. [134] [ better source needed ]
Alcohol (liquor), and tobacco		Veneration	Maximón is venerated in the form of an effigy or cult image. Worship varies greatly by location. In Santiago Atitlán, Maximón's effigy resides in a different household every year. His image is normally only taken out of this house during Holy Week, whereafter it will change households, but is on display year-round due to the popularity of pilgrimages. The effigy has special attendants that stay by the altar year-round, drinking and smoking alongside it. They deliver offerings from the public to the image. Popular offerings include money, tobacco, and moonshine. [135]
Kosher wine		Element in Kiddush

See also

• Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record
• Ethnobotany
• God in a Pill?
• List of Acacia species known to contain psychoactive alkaloids
• List of plants used for smoking
• N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
• Psilocybin mushrooms
• Psychoactive cacti
• Psychoactive plant

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130. DeKorne, Jim (2011). Psychedelic shamanism: the cultivation, preparation, and shamanic use of psychotropic plants (Rev. ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: North Atlantic Books. ISBN   978-1-55643-999-5.
131. Cleversley, Keith (January 2002). "Peganum harmala - Syrian Rue". Entheology.com.
132. Rätsch 2005, "Peganum harmala Linnaeus: Syrian Rue, Harmel", pp. 1022–1928.
133. Quilter, Jeffrey (2022). The Ancient Central Andes (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge World Archaeology. pp. 38–39, 279. ISBN   978-0-367-48151-3.
134. Gutiérrez, Isabel. "Día de los Muertos: Learning about death through observing and pitching in". ResearchGate. p. 234.
135. Meet Maximón: The Liquor-Drinking, Chain-Smoking Saint, National Geographic, Bethany Jones, January 24th, 2018

Works cited

• Rätsch, Christian (2005). The encyclopedia of psychoactive plants : ethnopharmacology and its applications . Rochester, Vt, United States: Park Street Press. ISBN   978-0-89281-978-2. Internet Archive EPub file – freely downloadable (37Mb)
• Snellgrove, David L. (1987). Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. Indian Buddhists and Their Tibetan Successors. London: Serindia.^{[ ISBN missing ]}
• Williams, Paul; Tribe, Anthony; Wynne, Alexander (2012). Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition. Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-57179-1.

Databases

• "Search the databases", Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
  • USDA online database compiled from: Duke, James A. (1992). Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants (First ed.). Boca Raton, United States: CRC Press. ISBN   9780849336720. OCLC   25874249.

Further reading

• Duke, James A. (2001). Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants (Second ed.). Boca Raton, FL, United States: CRC Press. ISBN   9780849338656.
• Ott, Jonathan (1996). Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic drugs, their plant sources and history. Kennewick, US: Natural Products Co. ISBN   978-0-9614234-8-3.
• Wasson, R. Gordon (1980). The wondrous mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica . New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 97–99. ISBN   978-0-07-068442-3.

  Chocolate was drunk cold and mixed with aromatic flower petals of which the overwhelming favorite was cacahua-xochitl. Indeed it seems as though these particular petals were indispensable. Our poets' 'chocolate flowers' had nothing to do botanically with Theobroma cacao, but everything to do with the chocolate beverage as drunk by the aristocrats ... my belief that the flowers of the Nahuatl poets come from their exclusive privilege for indulging in the flower petals of the cacahuaxochitl. Here we are dealing with a tree that grows in Veracruz and Oaxaca, known today to botanists as Quararibea funebris. Whether the petals of these flowers were entheogens such as the mushroom and morning-glory seeds, I do not know, but that the lords of Nahua so regarded them seems virtually certain.

  — Wasson (1980). "A Velada in Huautla". p. 98

• Wasson, R. Gordon (1968). Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality. Part 2 by Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
• Wood, Stephanie; Eugene, Ore, eds. (2000–2023). "Nahuatl Dictionary". cacahuaxochitl. With support from the National Science Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities. Wired Humanities Projects, College of Education, University of Oregon.