Hyoscyamus niger

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Hyoscyamus niger
Hyoscyamus niger - Kohler-s Medizinal-Pflanzen-073.jpg
Hyoscyamus niger in Köhler's Medicinal Plants, 1887
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Hyoscyamus
Species:
H. niger
Binomial name
Hyoscyamus niger
L.

Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger, also black henbane and stinking nightshade) is a poisonous plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae . [1] [2] Henbane is native to temperate Europe and Siberia, and naturalised in Great Britain and Ireland. [3]

Contents

Historical use

The name henbane dates from AD 1265; "bane" meant death. [4] Other etymologies of henbane derive from the Indo-European stem bhelena meaning "crazy plant" [5] and with the Proto-Germanic element bil meaning "vision", "hallucination", "magical power", and "miraculous ability". [6]

Historically, henbane was used in combination with other plants, such as the mandrake, the deadly nightshade, and the datura, as an anaesthetic potion, and for its psychoactive properties in "magic brews". [1] [2] [7] [8] [9] These psychoactive properties include visual hallucinations and a sensation of flight. [10] It was originally used in continental Europe, Asia, and the Arab world, [11] though it did spread to England in the Middle Ages. The use of henbane by the ancient Romans was documented by Pliny, who said it was "of the nature of wine and therefore offensive to the understanding", and by Dioscorides, who recommended it as a sedative and analgesic. [12]

The plant, recorded as Herba Apollinaris, was used to yield oracles by the priestesses of Apollo. [2] Recently evidence for its use in the earlier British Neolithic has been debated. [13] John Gerard's Herball states: "The leaves, the seeds and the juice, when taken internally cause an unquiet sleep, like unto the sleep of drunkenness, which continueth long and is deadly to the patient. To wash the feet in a decoction of Henbane, as also the often smelling of the flowers causeth sleep." [12]

The plant was also purportedly used as a fumigant for magical purposes. [9] Albertus Magnus, in his work De Vegetalibus (1250), reported that necromancers used henbane to invoke the souls of the dead as well as demons. [14] Henbane was already being demonized as early as the Late Middle Ages when it became inseparably associated with witchcraft and malefic practices. “The witches drank the decoction of henbane and had those dreams for which they were tortured and executed. It was also used for witches’ ointments and was used for making weather and conjuring spirits. If there were a great drought then a stalk of henbane would be dipped into a spring, then the sun-baked sand would be sprinkled with this” (Perger 1864, 181). [14]

Henbane was discovered among an assortment of imported spices during the underwater archaeological excavation of the royal Danish-Norwegian flagship, Gribshunden, which sank in 1495 near Ronneby, Sweden. The purpose of this henbane is not known: but could have been medicinal for soothing toothache, or as an anti-emetic and to prevent motion sickness. [15]

During a Pomeranian witchcraft trial in 1538, a suspected witch "confessed" that she had given a man henbane seeds so that he would run around "crazy" (sexually aroused). In a file from an Inquisition trial, it was noted that "a witch admits" having once strewn henbane seeds between two lovers and uttering the following formula: "Here I sow wild seed, and the devil advised that they would hate and avoid each other until these seeds had been separated" (Marzell 1922, 169). [14]

Henbane was one of the ingredients in gruit, traditionally used in beers as a flavouring. Several cities, most notably Pilsen, were named after its German name "Bilsenkraut" in the context of its production for beer flavouring. [16] The recipe for henbane beer includes 40 g dried chopped henbane herbage, 5 g bayberry, 23 L water, 1 L brewing malt, 900 g honey, 5 g dried yeast, and brown sugar. [14] Henbane fell out of usage for beer when it was replaced by hops in the 11th to 16th centuries, as the Bavarian Purity Law of 1516 outlawed ingredients other than barley, hops, yeast, and water. [17]

Henbane is sometimes identified with the "hebenon" poured into the ear of Hamlet's father, [7] [18] although other candidates for hebenon exist. [19]

Theories

Henbane seeds have been found in a Viking grave near Fyrkat, Denmark, that was first described in 1977. [20] [21] This and other archaeological finds show that H. niger was known to the Vikings. Analysis of the symptoms caused by intoxication of this plant suggest that it may have been used by berserkers to induce the rage state that they used in war. [22]

Cultivation and use

Henbane cultivation, Lilly Experimental Farm, 1919 Henbane Hand book of pharmacy and therapeutics b1007511 004 tif c821gk83z.tiff
Henbane cultivation, Lilly Experimental Farm, 1919

Henbane originated in Eurasia, and is now globally distributed [2] as a plant grown mainly for pharmaceutical purposes. Henbane is rare in northern Europe; its cultivation for medicinal use is spread and legal in central and eastern Europe and in India. [14]

Henbane is used in traditional herbal medicine for ailments of the bones, rheumatism, toothache, asthma, cough, nervous diseases, and stomach pain. It might also be used as analgesic, sedative, and narcotic in some cultures. [23] Adhesive bandages with henbane extract behind the ear are reported to prevent discomfort in travel-sick people.[ medical citation needed ] Henbane oil is used for medicinal massage. [24]

Henbane material in most Western countries can be bought in pharmacies with a prescription only. Sales of henbane oil are not legally regulated and are allowed in shops other than pharmacies in the US. [14]

Henbane has travelled through the company of Romani people. [25]

Preparation, dosage, toxicity

Henbane leaves and herbage without roots are chopped and dried and are then used for medicinal purposes or in incense and smoking blends, in making beer and tea, and in seasoning wine. Henbane leaves are boiled in oil to derive henbane oil. Henbane seeds are an ingredient in incense blends. [14] In all preparations, the dosage has to be carefully estimated due to the high toxicity of henbane. For some therapeutic applications, dosages like 0.5 g and 1.5– 3 g were used. The lethal dosage is not known. [24]

Henbane is toxic to cattle, wild animals, fish, and birds. [14] Not all animals are susceptible; for example, the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including cabbage moths, eat henbane. Pigs are immune to henbane toxicity and are reported to enjoy the effects of the plant. [14]

Psychoactive material

Hyoscyamine, scopolamine, and other tropane alkaloids have been found in the foliage and seeds of the plant. [2] The standard alkaloid content has been reported to be 0.03% to 0.28%. [14]

Its psychoactive and pharmacological effects are a result of these alkaloids exerting an anticholinergic mechanism of action which blocks the function of acetylcholine in the brain and antagonizes the muscarinic receptors. [1] [26] This results in an altered state of consciousness, hallucinogenic experiences, and typically, delirium. [27] [28] This mechanism of action is not only linked to dangerous effects and accidents, but dementia as well. [29] [30] [26] Since toxicity/lethality is such a major concern with plants like henbane; many traditional preparations of henbane or other similar scopolamine-containing plants were designed to be applied transdermally, often in “magical ointments” by herbalists, witches and cunning folk. [31] [32] [9] The purpose of this was to absorb the primary and transdermally-active alkaloid scopolamine through the skin, thus eliminating the risk of the additional toxicity from atropine and hyoscyamine that is inevitably present with oral ingestion of the plant but not when used topically. [33] [32]

Effects

Henbane ingestion by humans is followed simultaneously by peripheral inhibition and central stimulation. [14] Common effects of henbane ingestion include hallucinations, [2] dilated pupils, narcosis, restlessness, and flushed skin. Less common effects are tachycardia, convulsions, vomiting, hypertension, hyperpyrexia, and ataxia. [2] Initial effects typically last for three to four hours, while aftereffects may last up to three days. The side effects of henbane ingestion are dryness in the mouth, confusion, visual illusions, bizarre thoughts, locomotor and memory disturbances, and farsightedness, similar in style to those of other tropane-based deliriants such as plants of the New World genus datura . As a result of this distinct chemical and pharmacological profile, overdoses can result not only in delirium, but also severe anticholinergic syndrome, coma, respiratory paralysis, and death. Low and average dosages have inebriating and aphrodisiac effects. [14] [24]

In his book How Do Witches Fly?, Alexander Kuklin refers to an experience of black henbane had by German scientist Michael Schenck. [28] Schenck recollected his experience:

The henbane's first effect was purely physical discomfort. My limbs lost certainty, pains hammered in my head, and I began to feel extremely giddy....I went to the mirror and was able to distinguish my face, but more dimly than normal. It looked flushed and must have been so. I had the feeling that my head had increased in size: it seemed to have grown broader, more solid, heavier, and I imagined that it was enveloped in firmer, thicker skin. The mirror itself seemed to be swaying, and I found it difficult to keep my face within its frame. The black discs of my pupils were immensely enlarged, as though the whole iris, which was normally blue, had become black. Despite of' the dilation of my pupils I could see no better than usual; quite the contrary, the outlines of objects were hazy, the window and the window frame were obscured by a thin mist.

Schenck's pulse became rapid and he experienced a further increase in the hallucinogenic effects of the plant:

There were animals which looked at me keenly with contorted grimaces and staring, terrified eyes; there were terrifying stones and clouds of mist, all sweeping along in the same direction. They carried me irresistibly with them. Their coloring must be described - but it was not a pure hue. They enveloped in a vague gray light, which emitted a dull glow and rolled onward and upward into a black and smoky sky. I was flung into a flaring drunkenness, a witches' cauldron of madness. Above my head water was flowing, dark and blood-red. The sky was filled with herds of animals. Fluid, formless creatures emerged from the darkness. I heard words, but they were all wrong and nonsensical, and yet they possessed for me some hidden meaning. [28]

Misidentification

Apothecary vessels for Hyoscyamus preparations, Germany, 19th century Apothecary vessels Hyoscyamus 19th century.jpg
Apothecary vessels for Hyoscyamus preparations, Germany, 19th century

Celebrity chef Antony Worrall Thompson accidentally recommended henbane as a "tasty addition to salads" in the August 2008 issue of Healthy and Organic Living magazine. The publication promptly warned subscribers against consuming the "very toxic" plant upon discovery of the error, and Thompson admitted to confusing it with fat hen, a member of the spinach family. [34]

Related Research Articles

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<i>Datura stramonium</i> Species of flowering plant in the nightshade family Solanaceae

Datura stramonium, known by the common names thorn apple, jimsonweed, devil's snare, or devil's trumpet, is a poisonous flowering plant of the nightshade family Solanaceae. It is a species belonging to the Datura genus and Daturae tribe. Its likely origin was in Central America, and it has been introduced in many world regions. It is an aggressive invasive weed in temperate climates and tropical climates across the world. D. stramonium has frequently been employed in traditional medicine to treat a variety of ailments. It has also been used as a hallucinogen, taken entheogenically to cause intense, sacred or occult visions. It is unlikely ever to become a major drug of abuse owing to effects upon both mind and body frequently perceived as being highly unpleasant, giving rise to a state of profound and long-lasting disorientation or delirium with a potentially fatal outcome. It contains tropane alkaloids which are responsible for the psychoactive effects, and may be severely toxic.

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<i>Atropa belladonna</i> Species of toxic flowering plant in the nightshade family.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tropane alkaloid</span> Class of chemical compounds

Tropane alkaloids are a class of bicyclic [3.2.1] alkaloids and secondary metabolites that contain a tropane ring in their chemical structure. Tropane alkaloids occur naturally in many members of the plant family Solanaceae. Certain tropane alkaloids such as cocaine and scopolamine are notorious for their psychoactive effects, related usage and cultural associations. Particular tropane alkaloids such as these have pharmacological properties and can act as anticholinergics or stimulants.

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Hyoscyameae is an Old World tribe of the subfamily Solanoideae of the flowering plant family Solanaceae. It comprises eight genera: Anisodus, Archihyoscyamus, Atropa, Atropanthe, Hyoscyamus, Physochlaina, Przewalskia and Scopolia. The genera Archihyoscyamus, Atropanthe and Przewalskia are monotypic, the first being endemic to Turkey and Iran, the second to China and the third to Tibet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychoactive plant</span> Plants that induce psychotropic effects upon ingestion

Psychoactive plants are plants, or preparations thereof, that upon ingestion induce psychotropic effects. As stated in a reference work:

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Atropa baetica, commonly known as the Andalusian belladonna, is one of Europe's rarest wildflowers. A close relative of the infamous deadly nightshade, its specific name derives from that of the Roman province of Hispania Baetica, while its common name refers to the Spanish region of Andalucía – both designating the area in the south of Spain where it is most frequently encountered. It is an attractive perennial plant with a herbaceous habit, bearing infundibuliform, yellow or greenish flowers and shiny, black berries. Like the other three species of Atropa, it is an extremely poisonous plant, containing a variety of tropane alkaloids with anticholinergic, deliriant, antispasmodic and mydriatic properties. Although most populations of the plant are to be found in Spain, it is not wholly confined to the Iberian Peninsula of Europe, occurring also in certain localities in Morocco and Algeria in the Atlas Mountains of North Africa. The Rif and the Baetic System, which face each other across the Alboran Sea, together constitute one of the finest of the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspots – rich in endemic species, of which Atropa baetica is a notable example..

<i>Hyoscyamus muticus</i> Species of flowering plant

Hyoscyamus muticus, the Egyptian henbane, is a shrub in the family of Solanaceae that is native to desert areas of North Africa. It contains alkaloids that are useful in pharmaceuticals. It is used locally as a painkiller and a recreational drug. In high dosages it can be fatal.

References

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  4. ↑ Anatoly Liberman, J. Lawrence Mitchell (2008). An Analytic Dictionary of English Etymology: An Introduction. U of Minnesota Press. pp. 108–110. ISBN   978-0-8166-5272-3.
  5. ↑ Hoops, J. (1973). Bilsenkraut. Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde. pp. 1:284.
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  12. 1 2 Grieve, Maud (1971). A Modern Herbal: The Medicinal, Culinary, Cosmetic and Economic Properties, Cultivation and Folk-lore of Herbs, Grasses, Fungi, Shrubs, & Trees with All Their Modern Scientific Uses, Volume 1.
  13. ↑ Black Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.) in the Scottish Neolithic, Journal of Archaeological Science (1999) 26, 45–52
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Raetsch, Ch. (2005). The encyclopedia of psychoactive plants: ethnopharmacology and its applications. US: Park Street Press. pp. 277–282.
  15. ↑ Larsson, Mikael; Foley, Brendan (2023-01-26). "The king's spice cabinet–Plant remains from Gribshunden, a 15th century royal shipwreck in the Baltic Sea". PLOS ONE. 18 (1): e0281010. Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1881010L. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0281010 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   9879437 . PMID   36701280.
  16. ↑ Christian Rätsch (2015-07-29). "Urbock oder echtes Bier" (in German). Retrieved 2015-08-26. Diese ehemaligen Anpflanzungen leben in verschiedenen Ortbezeichnungen bis heute fort, z.B. Bilsensee, Billendorf, Bilsengarten und vor allem im böhmischen Pilsen. So hat die Stadt, nach der unser modernes, stark gehopftes Bier »Pilsner« heißt, seinen Namen selbst vom Bilsenkraut, das dem echten »Pilsener Bier«, nämlich dem Bilsenkraut-Bier seinen Namen verlieh! In der Schweiz lebt der alte Name pilsener krut in der Bezeichnung Pilsenkraut bis heute fort.
  17. ↑ Dan Rabin, Carl Forget (1998). The Dictionary of Beer and Brewing. Taylor & Francis. xii. ISBN   978-1-57958-078-0.
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  19. ↑ Anatoly Liberman, J. Lawrence Mitchell (2008). An Analytic Dictionary of English Etymology: An Introduction. U of Minnesota Press. pp. 110–111. ISBN   978-0-8166-5272-3.
  20. ↑ S., Price, Neil (2002). The Viking way : religion and war in late Iron Age Scandinavia. Uppsala University. Uppsala: Dept. of Archaeology and Ancient History. ISBN   978-9150616262. OCLC   52987118.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  23. ↑ Alizadeh A, Moshiri M, Alizadeh J, Balali-Mood M. Black henbane and its toxicity - a descriptive review. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2014 Sep;4(5):297-311. PMID 25386392; PMCID: PMC4224707.
  24. 1 2 3 Lindequist, U. (1993). Hyoscyamus. In Haegers Handbuch der pharmazeutischen Praxis, 5th ed., 5.: Berlin: Springer. pp. 460–74.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
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  31. ↑ Rätsch, Christian, The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications pub. Park Street Press 2005
  32. 1 2 Hansen, Harold A. The Witch's Garden pub. Unity Press 1978 ISBN   978-0913300473
  33. ↑ Sollmann, Torald (1957). A Manual of Pharmacology and Its Applications to Therapeutics and Toxicology (8th ed.). Philadelphia and London: W.B. Saunders.
  34. ↑ Dawar, Anil (August 4, 2008). "TV chef Worrall Thompson recommends deadly weed as salad ingredient". The Guardian . London. Retrieved 2008-08-04.
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