Anticholinergic

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Anticholinergics (anticholinergic agents) are substances that block the action of the acetylcholine (ACh) neurotransmitter at synapses in the central and peripheral nervous system. [1] [2]

Contents

These agents inhibit the parasympathetic nervous system by selectively blocking the binding of ACh to its receptor in nerve cells. The nerve fibers of the parasympathetic system are responsible for the involuntary movement of smooth muscles present in the gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, lungs, sweat glands, and many other parts of the body. [3]

In broad terms, anticholinergics are divided into two categories in accordance with their specific targets in the central and peripheral nervous system and at the neuromuscular junction: [3] antimuscarinic agents and antinicotinic agents (ganglionic blockers, neuromuscular blockers). [4]

The term "anticholinergic" is typically used to refer to antimuscarinics that competitively inhibit the binding of ACh to muscarinic acetylcholine receptors; such agents do not antagonize the binding at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction, although the term is sometimes used to refer to agents that do so. [3] [5]

Medical uses

Anticholinergic drugs are used to treat a variety of conditions:

Anticholinergics generally have antisialagogue effects (decreasing saliva production), and most produce some level of sedation, both being advantageous in surgical procedures. [8] [9]

Until the beginning of the 20th century, anticholinergic drugs were widely used to treat psychiatric disorders. [10]

Physiological effects

Effects of anticholinergic drugs include:

Clinically the most significant feature is delirium, particularly in the elderly, who are most likely to be affected by the toxidrome. [3]

Side effects

Long-term use may increase the risk of both cognitive and physical decline. [14] [15] It is unclear whether they affect the risk of death generally. [14] However, in older adults they do appear to increase the risk of death. [16]

Possible effects of anticholinergics include:

Possible effects in the central nervous system resemble those associated with delirium, and may include:

Older patients are at a higher risk of experiencing CNS side effects.[ citation needed ] The link possible between anticholinergic medication use and cognitive decline/dementia has been noted in weaker observational studies. [21] Although there is no strong evidence from randomized controlled trials to suggest that these medications should be avoided, clinical guidelines suggest that a consideration be made to decrease the use of these medications if safe to do so and the use of these medications be carefully considered to reduce any possible adverse effects including cognitive decline. [21]

Toxicity

An acute anticholinergic syndrome is reversible and subsides once all of the causative agents have been excreted. Reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor agents such as physostigmine can be used as an antidote in life-threatening cases. Wider use is discouraged due to the significant side effects related to cholinergic excess including seizures, muscle weakness, bradycardia, bronchoconstriction, lacrimation, salivation, bronchorrhea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Even in documented cases of anticholinergic toxicity, seizures have been reported after the rapid administration of physostigmine. Asystole has occurred after physostigmine administration for tricyclic antidepressant overdose, so a conduction delay (QRS > 0.10 second) or suggestion of tricyclic antidepressant ingestion is generally considered a contraindication to physostigmine administration. [22]

Dementia

A recent study carried out by experts from the University of Nottingham and funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) has shown there to be an increased risk of up to 50% of patients developing Dementia due to some of these medications and cautions have been advised with their use. The study findings showed increased risks of dementia for anticholinergic drugs overall and specifically for the anticholinergic antidepressants, antipsychotic drugs, antiparkinsons drugs, bladder drugs and epilepsy drugs after accounting for other risk factors for dementia.[ citation needed ] However, in a March 2025 article published in the American Journal of Epidemiology , Aguado and colleagues [23] reported that anticholinergic antihypertensive medications reduced individuals' 10-year risk of incident vascular dementia by 31% when used for ≥6 years compared to 3–6 years (risk ratio, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.54–0.90); the comparative risk of Alzheimer's disease was reduced, as well, but not to a statistically significant degree (risk ratio, 0.91; 95% CI, 0.77–1.10).[ citation needed ]

Pharmacology

Anticholinergics are classified according to the receptors that are affected:

Examples

Examples of common anticholinergics:

Antidotes

Physostigmine is one of only a few drugs that can be used as an antidote for anticholinergic poisoning. Nicotine also counteracts anticholinergics by activating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Caffeine (although an adenosine receptor antagonist) can counteract the anticholinergic symptoms by reducing sedation and increasing acetylcholine activity, thereby causing alertness and arousal.

Psychoactive uses

When a significant amount of an anticholinergic is taken into the body, a toxic reaction known as acute anticholinergic syndrome may result. This may happen accidentally or intentionally as a consequence of either recreational or entheogenic drug use, though many users find the side effects to be exceedingly unpleasant and not worth the recreational effects they experience. In the context of recreational use, anticholinergics are often called deliriants. [25]

Plant sources

The most common plants containing anticholinergic alkaloids (including atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine among others) are:

Use as a deterrent

Several narcotic and opiate-containing drug preparations, such as those containing hydrocodone and codeine are combined with an anticholinergic agent to deter intentional misuse. [33] Examples include hydrocodone/homatropine (Tussigon, Hydromet, Hycodan), diphenoxylate/atropine (Lomotil), and hydrocodone polistirex/chlorpheniramine polistirex (Tussionex Pennkinetic, TussiCaps). However, it is noted that opioid/antihistamine combinations are used clinically for their synergistic effect in the management of pain and maintenance of dissociative anesthesia (sedation) in such preparations as meperidine/promethazine (Mepergan) and dipipanone/cyclizine (Diconal), which act as strong anticholinergic agents. [34]

References

  1. ↑ "Anticholinergics", Anticholinergic Agents, Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2012, PMID   31643610 , retrieved 2020-03-23, Anticholinergics have antisecretory activities and decrease nasal and bronchial secretions, salivation, lacrimation, sweating and gastric acid production, and can be used to decrease secretions in allergic and inflammatory diseases. Anticholinergics relax smooth muscle in the gastrointestinal tract, bladder and lung and can be used for gastrointestinal, urological or respiratory conditions associated with spasm and dysmotility.
  2. ↑ Clinical Pharmacology [database online]. Tampa, FL: Gold Standard, Inc.; 2009. Drugs with Anticholinergic Activity. Prescriber's Letter 2011; 18 (12):271233.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Migirov, A; Datta, AR (2020), "article-17683", Physiology, Anticholinergic Reaction, This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, duplication, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, a link is provided to the Creative Commons license, and any changes made are indicated., Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID   31536197 , retrieved 2020-03-24
  4. ↑ Sharee A. Wiggins; Tomas Griebling. "Urinary Incontinence". Landon Center on Aging. Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
  5. ↑ Su, Mark; Goldman, Matthew. Traub, Stephen J.; Burns, Michele M.; Grayzel, Jonathan (eds.). "Anticholinergic poisoning". UpToDate. Retrieved 2020-03-24.
  6. ↑ "NERVE AGENTS". fas.org. Retrieved 2020-07-27.
  7. ↑ Nair, V. Priya; Hunter, Jennifer M. (2004-10-01). "Anticholinesterases and anticholinergic drugs". Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain. 4 (5): 164–168. doi: 10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkh045 . ISSN   1743-1816.
  8. ↑ Page 592 in: Cahalan, Michael D.; Barash, Paul G.; Cullen, Bruce F.; Stoelting, Robert K. (2009). Clinical Anesthesia. Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN   978-0-7817-8763-5.
  9. ↑ Barash, Paul G. (2009). Clinical Anesthesia. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN   9780781787635. Archived from the original on 20 February 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  10. ↑ Bangen, Hans: Geschichte der medikamentösen Therapie der Schizophrenie. Berlin 1992, ISBN   3-927408-82-4
  11. ↑ "ATROPINE- atropine sulfate solution/ drops". DailyMed. 2017-11-20. Retrieved 2020-03-28.
  12. ↑ "MYDRIACYL- tropicamide solution/ drops". DailyMed. 2019-12-13. Retrieved 2020-03-28.
  13. ↑ "MYDRIACYL- tropicamide solution/ drops". DailyMed. 2019-12-13. Retrieved 2020-03-28.
  14. 1 2 Fox, C; Smith, T; Maidment, I; Chan, WY; Bua, N; Myint, PK; Boustani, M; Kwok, CS; Glover, M; Koopmans, I; Campbell, N (September 2014). "Effect of medications with anti-cholinergic properties on cognitive function, delirium, physical function and mortality: a systematic review". Age and Ageing. 43 (5): 604–15. doi: 10.1093/ageing/afu096 . PMID   25038833.
  15. ↑ Andre, L; Gallini, A; Montastruc, F; Montastruc, JL; Piau, A; Lapeyre-Mestre, M; Gardette, V (29 August 2019). "Association between anticholinergic (atropinic) drug exposure and cognitive function in longitudinal studies among individuals over 50 years old: a systematic review". European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 75 (12): 1631–1644. doi:10.1007/s00228-019-02744-8. PMID   31468067. S2CID   201675824.
  16. ↑ Ruxton, K; Woodman, RJ; Mangoni, AA (2 March 2015). "Drugs with anticholinergic effects and cognitive impairment, falls and all-cause mortality in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis". British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 80 (2): 209–20. doi:10.1111/bcp.12617. PMC   4541969 . PMID   25735839.
  17. ↑ Falk, N; Cole, A; Meredith, TJ (15 March 2018). "Evaluation of Suspected Dementia". American Family Physician. 97 (6): 398–405. PMID   29671539.
  18. ↑ Gray SL, Anderson ML, Dublin S, Hanlon JT, Hubbard R, Walker R, et al. (March 2015). "Cumulative use of strong anticholinergics and incident dementia: a prospective cohort study". JAMA Internal Medicine. 175 (3): 401–407. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2014.7663. PMC   4358759 . PMID   25621434.
  19. ↑ Talan, Jamie (July–August 2008). "Common Drugs May Cause Cognitive Problems". Neurology Now. 4 (4): 10–11. doi:10.1097/01.NNN.0000333835.93556.d1. Archived from the original on 2019-06-26. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
  20. ↑ "Lifeline Learning Center". Lifeline.theonlinelearningcenter.com. Archived from the original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  21. 1 2 Taylor-Rowan, Martin; Alharthi, Ahmed A.; Noel-Storr, Anna H.; Myint, Phyo K.; Stewart, Carrie; McCleery, Jenny; Quinn, Terry J. (2023-12-08). "Anticholinergic deprescribing interventions for reducing risk of cognitive decline or dementia in older adults with and without prior cognitive impairment". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2023 (12): CD015405. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD015405.pub2. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   10704558 . PMID   38063254.
  22. ↑ Rosen, Peter, John A. Marx, Robert S. Hockberger, and Ron M. Walls. Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby Elsevier, 2014.
  23. ↑ Aguado, Jaume; Gutierrez, Lia; Forns, Joan; Vila-Guilera, Julia; Rothman, Kenneth J; García-Albéniz, Xabier (2025-03-04). "Effect of different durations of treatment with antihypertensive drugs with anticholinergic effects on the risk of dementia: a target trial emulation study". American Journal of Epidemiology. 194 (3): 691–698. doi:10.1093/aje/kwae263. ISSN   0002-9262.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 "[113] How well do you know your anticholinergic (antimuscarinic) drugs? | Therapeutics Initiative". Therapeutics Initiative. 10 September 2018. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
  25. 1 2 Bersani, F. S.; Corazza, O.; Simonato, P.; Mylokosta, A.; Levari, E.; Lovaste, R.; Schifano, F. (2013). "Drops of madness? Recreational misuse of tropicamide collyrium; early warning alerts from Russia and Italy". General Hospital Psychiatry. 35 (5): 571–3. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2013.04.013. PMID   23706777.
  26. ↑ Carroll FI, Blough BE, Mascarella SW, Navarro HA, Lukas RJ, Damaj MI (2014). "Bupropion and Bupropion Analogs as Treatments for CNS Disorders". Emerging Targets & Therapeutics in the Treatment of Psychostimulant Abuse. Advances in Pharmacology. Vol. 69. pp. 177–216. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-420118-7.00005-6. ISBN   9780124201187. PMID   24484978.
  27. ↑ Dwoskin, Linda P. (29 January 2014). Emerging Targets & Therapeutics in the Treatment of Psychostimulant Abuse. Elsevier Science. pp. 177–216. ISBN   978-0-12-420177-4. Archived from the original on 20 March 2017.
  28. ↑ Tasman, Allan; Kay, Jerald; Lieberman, Jeffrey A.; First, Michael B.; Maj, Mario (11 October 2011). Psychiatry. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   978-1-119-96540-4. Archived from the original on 20 March 2017.
  29. ↑ Damaj, M. I.; Flood, P; Ho, K. K.; May, E. L.; Martin, B. R. (2004). "Effect of Dextrometorphan and Dextrorphan on Nicotine and Neuronal Nicotinic Receptors: In Vitro and in Vivo Selectivity". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 312 (2): 780–5. doi:10.1124/jpet.104.075093. PMID   15356218. S2CID   149958.
  30. ↑ Lee, Jun-Ho; Shin, Eun-Joo; Jeong, Sang Min; Kim, Jong-Hoon; Lee, Byung-Hwan; Yoon, In-Soo; Lee, Joon-Hee; Choi, Sun-Hye; Lee, Sang-Mok; Lee, Phil Ho; Kim, Hyoung-Chun; Nah, Seung-Yeol (2006). "Effects of dextrorotatory morphinans on α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes". European Journal of Pharmacology. 536 (1–2): 85–92. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.02.034. PMID   16563374.
  31. ↑ Hernandez, S. C.; Bertolino, M; Xiao, Y; Pringle, K. E.; Caruso, F. S.; Kellar, K. J. (2000). "Dextromethorphan and Its Metabolite Dextrorphan Block α3β4 Neuronal Nicotinic Receptors". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 293 (3): 962–7. PMID   10869398.
  32. ↑ Shytle, RD; Penny, E; Silver, AA; Goldman, J; Sanberg, PR (Jul 2002). "Mecamylamine (Inversine): an old antihypertensive with new research directions". Journal of Human Hypertension. 16 (7): 453–7. doi: 10.1038/sj.jhh.1001416 . PMID   12080428.
  33. ↑ "NIH DailyMed – Hydromet Syrup". Dailymed.nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-05-23. Retrieved 2008-08-17.
  34. ↑ Zacny, James P. (2003). "Characterizing the subjective, psychomotor, and physiological effects of a hydrocodone combination product (Hycodan) in non-drug-abusing volunteers". Psychopharmacology. 165 (2): 146–156. doi:10.1007/s00213-002-1245-5. PMID   12404072. S2CID   7835794.
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