Papaverine

Last updated
Papaverine
Papaverine.svg
Papaverine-from-xtal-3D-balls-B.png
Clinical data
Pronunciation /pəˈpævərn/
Trade names Pavabid, others
AHFS/Drugs.com Monograph
MedlinePlus a682707
Pregnancy
category
  • AU:A
Routes of
administration
Oral, intravenous, intramuscular, rectal, intracavernosal
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability 80%
Protein binding ~90%
Metabolism Hepatic
Elimination half-life 1.5–2 hours
Excretion Renal
Identifiers
  • 1-[(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)methyl]-6,7-dimethoxyisoquinoline
CAS Number
  • 58-74-2  Yes check.svgY
    61-25-6 (hydrochloride)
PubChem CID
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.361 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Chemical and physical data
Formula C20H21NO4
Molar mass 339.391 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
  • COc1ccc(cc1OC)Cc2c3cc(c(cc3ccn2)OC)OC
  • InChI=1S/C20H21NO4/c1-22-17-6-5-13(10-18(17)23-2)9-16-15-12-20(25-4)19(24-3)11-14(15)7-8-21-16/h5-8,10-12H,9H2,1-4H3 Yes check.svgY
  • Key:XQYZDYMELSJDRZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N Yes check.svgY
 X mark.svgNYes check.svgY  (what is this?)    (verify)

Papaverine (Latin papaver , "poppy") is an opium alkaloid antispasmodic drug, used primarily in the treatment of visceral spasms and vasospasms (especially those involving the intestines, heart, or brain), occasionally in the treatment of erectile dysfunction and acute mesenteric ischemia. While it is found in the opium poppy, papaverine differs in both structure and pharmacological action from the analgesic morphine and its derivatives (such as codeine).

Contents

In addition to opium, papaverine is purported to be present in high concentrations in star gooseberry. [1]

History

Capsule of Papaver somniferum showing latex (opium) exuding from incision. Papaverine occurs naturally in opium. Opium pod cut to demonstrate fluid extraction1.jpg
Capsule of Papaver somniferum showing latex (opium) exuding from incision. Papaverine occurs naturally in opium.

Papaverine was discovered in 1848 by Georg Merck (1825–1873). [2] Merck was a student of the German chemists Justus von Liebig and August Hofmann, and he was the son of Emanuel Merck (1794–1855), founder of the Merck corporation, a major German chemical and pharmaceutical company. [3]

Uses

Papaverine is approved to treat spasms of the gastrointestinal tract, bile ducts and ureter and for use as a cerebral and coronary vasodilator in subarachnoid hemorrhage (combined with balloon angioplasty) [4] and coronary artery bypass surgery. [5] Papaverine may also be used as a smooth muscle relaxant in microsurgery where it is applied directly to blood vessels.

Papaverine is used as an erectile dysfunction drug, alone or sometimes in combination. [6] [7] Papaverine, when injected in penile tissue, causes direct smooth muscle relaxation and consequent filling of the corpus cavernosum with blood resulting in erection. A topical gel is also available for ED treatment. [8]

It is also commonly used in cryopreservation of blood vessels along with the other glycosaminoglycans and protein suspensions. [9] [10] Functions as a vasodilator during cryopreservation when used in conjunction with verapamil, phentolamine, nifedipine, tolazoline or nitroprusside. [11] [12]

Papaverine is also being investigated as a topical growth factor in tissue expansion with some success. [13]

Papaverine is used as an off-label prophylaxis (preventative) of migraine headaches. [14] [15] [16] It is not a first line drug such as a few beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, tricyclic antidepressants, and some anticonvulsants such as divalproex, but rather when these first line drugs and secondary drugs such as SSRIs, angiotensin II receptor antagonists, etc. fail in the prophylaxis of migraines, have intolerable side effects or are contraindicated.

Papaverine is also present in combinations of opium alkaloid salts such as papaveretum (Omnopon, Pantopon) and others, along with morphine, codeine, and in some cases noscapine and others in a percentage similar to that in opium, or modified for a given application.

Papaverine is found as a contaminant in some heroin [17] and can be used by forensic laboratories in heroin profiling to identify its source. [18] The metabolites can also be found in the urine of heroin users, allowing street heroin to be distinguished from pharmaceutical diacetylmorphine. [19]

Mechanism

The in vivo mechanism of action is not entirely clear, but an inhibition of the enzyme phosphodiesterase causing elevation of cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP[ clarification needed ] levels is significant. It may also alter mitochondrial respiration.

Papaverine has also been demonstrated to be a selective phosphodiesterase inhibitor for the PDE10A subtype found mainly in the striatum of the brain. When administered chronically to mice, it produced motor and cognitive deficits and increased anxiety, but conversely may produce an antipsychotic effect, [20] [21] although not all studies support this view. [22]

Side effects

Frequent side effects of papaverine treatment include polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, constipation, interference with sulphobromophthalein [ citation needed ] retention test (used to determine hepatic function), increased transaminase levels, increased alkaline phosphatase levels, somnolence, and vertigo.

Rare side effects include flushing of the face, hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating), cutaneous eruption, arterial hypotension, tachycardia, loss of appetite, jaundice, eosinophilia, thrombopenia, mixed hepatitis, headache, allergic reaction, chronic active hepatitis, and paradoxical aggravation of cerebral vasospasm. [23]

Papaverine in the plant Sauropus androgynus is linked to bronchiolitis obliterans. [24]

Formulations and trade names

Papaverine is available in its salt form as the hydrochloride, codecarboxylate, adenylate, and teprosylate. It was also once available as a salt of hydrobromide, camsylate, cromesilate, nicotinate, and phenylglycolate. The hydrochloride salt is available for intramuscular, intravenous, rectal and oral administration. The teprosylate is available in intravenous, intramuscular, and orally administered formulations. The codecarboxylate is available in oral form, only, as is the adenylate.

The codecarboxylate is sold under the name Albatran,[ citation needed ] the adenylate as Dicertan,[ citation needed ] and the hydrochloride salt is sold variously as Artegodan (Germany), Cardioverina (countries outside Europe and the United States), Dispamil (countries outside Europe and the United States), Opdensit (Germany), Panergon (Germany), Paverina Houde (Italy, Belgium), Pavacap (United States), Pavadyl (United States), Papaverine (Israel), Papaverin-Hamelin (Germany), Paveron (Germany), Spasmo-Nit (Germany), Cardiospan, Papaversan, Cepaverin, Cerespan, Drapavel, Forpaven, Papalease, Pavatest, Paverolan, Therapav (Canada [25] ), Vasospan, Cerebid, Delapav, Dilaves, Durapav, Dynovas, Optenyl, Pameion, Papacon, Pavabid, Pavacen, Pavakey, Pavased, Pavnell, Alapav, Myobid, Vasal, Pamelon, Pavadel, Pavagen, Ro-Papav, Vaso-Pav, Papanerin-hcl, Qua bid, Papital T.R., Paptial T.R., Pap-Kaps-150.[ citation needed ] In Hungary, papaverine and homatropine methylbromide are used in mild drugs that help "flush" the bile. [26]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Morphine</span> Pain medication of the opiate family

Morphine is a strong opiate that is found naturally in opium, a dark brown resin produced by drying the latex of opium poppies. It is mainly used as an analgesic. There are numerous methods used to administer morphine: oral; sublingual; via inhalation; injection into a muscle, injection under the skin, or injection into the spinal cord area; transdermal; or via rectal suppository. It acts directly on the central nervous system (CNS) to induce analgesia and alter perception and emotional response to pain. Physical and psychological dependence and tolerance may develop with repeated administration. It can be taken for both acute pain and chronic pain and is frequently used for pain from myocardial infarction, kidney stones, and during labor. Its maximum effect is reached after about 20 minutes when administered intravenously and 60 minutes when administered by mouth, while the duration of its effect is 3–7 hours. Long-acting formulations of morphine are available as MS-Contin, Kadian, and other brand names as well as generically.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Opium</span> Dried latex obtained from the opium poppy

Opium is dried latex obtained from the seed capsules of the opium poppy Papaver somniferum. Approximately 12 percent of opium is made up of the analgesic alkaloid morphine, which is processed chemically to produce heroin and other synthetic opioids for medicinal use and for the illegal drug trade. The latex also contains the closely related opiates codeine and thebaine, and non-analgesic alkaloids such as papaverine and noscapine. The traditional, labor-intensive method of obtaining the latex is to scratch ("score") the immature seed pods (fruits) by hand; the latex leaks out and dries to a sticky yellowish residue that is later scraped off and dehydrated. The word meconium historically referred to related, weaker preparations made from other parts of the opium poppy or different species of poppies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phosphodiesterase inhibitor</span> Drug

A phosphodiesterase inhibitor is a drug that blocks one or more of the five subtypes of the enzyme phosphodiesterase (PDE), thereby preventing the inactivation of the intracellular second messengers, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) by the respective PDE subtype(s). The ubiquitous presence of this enzyme means that non-specific inhibitors have a wide range of actions, the actions in the heart, and lungs being some of the first to find a therapeutic use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sildenafil</span> Drug for erectile dysfunction and hypertension

Sildenafil, sold under the brand name Viagra, among others, is a medication used to treat erectile dysfunction and pulmonary arterial hypertension. It is also sometimes used off-label for the treatment of certain symptoms in secondary Raynaud's phenomenon. It is unclear if it is effective for treating sexual dysfunction in females. It can be taken orally, intravenously, or through the sublingual route. Onset when taken orally is typically within twenty minutes and lasts for about two hours.

An antispasmodic is a pharmaceutical drug or other agent that suppresses muscle spasms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Opioid</span> Psychoactive chemical

Opioids are a class of drugs that derive from, or mimic, natural substances found in the opium poppy plant. Opioids work in the brain to produce a variety of effects, including pain relief. As a class of substances, they act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects.

<i>Petasites</i> Genus of flowering plants in the daisy family Asteraceae

Petasites is a genus of flowering plants in the sunflower family, Asteraceae, that are commonly referred to as butterburs and coltsfoots. They are perennial plants with thick, creeping underground rhizomes and large rhubarb-like leaves during the growing season. Most species are native to Asia or southern Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subarachnoid hemorrhage</span> Bleeding into the subarachnoid space

Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is bleeding into the subarachnoid space—the area between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater surrounding the brain. Symptoms may include a severe headache of rapid onset, vomiting, decreased level of consciousness, fever, weakness, numbness, and sometimes seizures. Neck stiffness or neck pain are also relatively common. In about a quarter of people a small bleed with resolving symptoms occurs within a month of a larger bleed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diltiazem</span> Calcium channel blocker medication

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cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 Mammalian protein found in Homo sapiens

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 is an enzyme from the phosphodiesterase class. It is found in various tissues, most prominently the corpus cavernosum and the retina. It has also been recently discovered to play a vital role in the cardiovascular system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Methysergide</span> Chemical compound

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aporphine</span> Chemical compound

Aporphine is an alkaloid with the chemical formula C17H17N. It is the core chemical substructure of the aporphine alkaloids, a subclass of quinoline alkaloids. It can exist in either of two enantiomeric forms, (R)-aporphine and (S)-aporphine.

<i>Sauropus androgynus</i> Edible plant

Sauropus androgynus, also known as katuk, star gooseberry, or sweet leaf, is a shrub grown in some tropical regions as a leaf vegetable.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avanafil</span> Chemical compound

Avanafil is a PDE5 inhibitor approved for erectile dysfunction by the FDA on April 27, 2012 and by EMA on June 21, 2013. Avanafil is sold under the brand names Stendra and Spedra. It was invented at Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, formerly known as Tanabe Seiyaku Co., and licensed to Vivus Inc., which partnered with Menarini Group to commercialise Spedra in over forty European countries, Australia, and New Zealand. Metuchen Pharmaceuticals obtained exclusive rights within the United States.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Opiate</span> Substance derived from opium

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