Morphine is a strong opiate that is found naturally in opium, a dark brown resin in poppies. It is mainly used as a pain medication, and is also commonly used recreationally, or to make other illicit opioids. There are numerous methods used to administer morphine: oral; sublingual; via inhalation; injection into a muscle; by injection under the skin; intravenously; injection into the space around the spinal cord; transdermal; or via rectal suppository. It acts directly on the central nervous system (CNS) to induce analgesia and alter perception and emotional response to pain. Physical and psychological dependence and tolerance may develop with repeated administration. It can be taken for both acute pain and chronic pain and is frequently used for pain from myocardial infarction, kidney stones, and during labor. Its maximum effect is reached after about 20 minutes when administered intravenously and 60 minutes when administered by mouth, while the duration of its effect is 3–7 hours. Long-acting formulations of morphine are available as MS-Contin, Kadian, and other brand names as well as generically.
Thebaine (paramorphine), also known as codeine methyl enol ether, is an opiate alkaloid, its name coming from the Greek Θῆβαι, Thēbai (Thebes), an ancient city in Upper Egypt. A minor constituent of opium, thebaine is chemically similar to both morphine and codeine, but has stimulatory rather than depressant effects. At high doses, it causes convulsions similar to strychnine poisoning. The synthetic enantiomer (+)-thebaine does show analgesic effects apparently mediated through opioid receptors, unlike the inactive natural enantiomer (−)-thebaine. While thebaine is not used therapeutically, it is the main alkaloid extracted from Papaver bracteatum and can be converted industrially into a variety of compounds, including hydrocodone, hydromorphone, oxycodone, oxymorphone, nalbuphine, naloxone, naltrexone, buprenorphine, butorphanol and etorphine.
Annona squamosa is a small, well-branched tree or shrub from the family Annonaceae that bears edible fruits called sugar-apples or sweetsops. It tolerates a tropical lowland climate better than its relatives Annona reticulata and Annona cherimola helping make it the most widely cultivated of these species. Annona squamosa is a small, semi-(or late) deciduous, much-branched shrub or small tree 3 to 8 metres tall similar to soursop.
Sanguinarine is a polycyclic quaternary alkaloid. It is extracted from some plants, including the bloodroot plant, from whose scientific name, Sanguinaria canadensis, its name is derived; the Mexican prickly poppy ; Chelidonium majus; and Macleaya cordata.
Berberine is a quaternary ammonium salt from the protoberberine group of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids found in such plants as Berberis vulgaris (barberry), Berberis aristata, Mahonia aquifolium, Hydrastis canadensis (goldenseal), Xanthorhiza simplicissima (yellowroot), Phellodendron amurense, Coptis chinensis, Tinospora cordifolia, Argemone mexicana, and Eschscholzia californica. Berberine is usually found in the roots, rhizomes, stems, and bark.
In enzymology, a hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase (NADPH) (EC 1.1.1.34) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
In enzymology, a ketol-acid reductoisomerase (EC 1.1.1.86) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
In enzymology, a 3'-hydroxy-N-methyl-(S)-coclaurine 4'-O-methyltransferase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
In enzymology, a 3-hydroxy-2-methylpyridinecarboxylate dioxygenase (EC 1.14.12.4) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
In enzymology, a N-methylcoclaurine 3'-monooxygenase (EC 1.14.13.71) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
In enzymology, a salutaridine synthase (EC 1.14.21.4) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction
Lindera aggregata is a plant species belonging to the genus Lindera.
Boldine is an alkaloid of the aporphine class that can be found in the boldo tree. It is the most abundant aporphine alkaloid found in Boldo. Blodine is also found in Lindera aggregata.
Monocyclic monoterpene ketone monooxygenase (EC 1.14.13.105, 1-hydroxy-2-oxolimonene 1,2-monooxygenase, dihydrocarvone 1,2-monooxygenase, MMKMO) is an enzyme with systematic name (-)-menthone,NADPH:oxygen oxidoreductase. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction
Isoleucine N-monooxygenase (EC 1.14.13.117, CYP79D3, CYP79D4) is an enzyme with systematic name L-isoleucine,NADPH:oxygen oxidoreductase (N-hydroxylating). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction
Valine N-monooxygenase (EC 1.14.13.118, CYP79D1, CYP79D2) is an enzyme with systematic name L-valine,NADPH:oxygen oxidoreductase (N-hydroxylating). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction
Phenylalanine N-monooxygenase (EC 1.14.14.40, phenylalanine N-hydroxylase, CYP79A2) is an enzyme with systematic name L-phenylalanine,NADPH:oxygen oxidoreductase (N-hydroxylating). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction
Beta-amyrin 11-oxidase (EC 1.14.13.134, CYP88D6) is an enzyme with systematic name beta-amyrin,NADPH:oxygen oxidoreductase (hydroxylating). This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction
Anonaine is a bioactive benzylisoquinoline alkaloid, present in members of the plant families Magnoliaceae and Annonaceae It is named after the plant it was first extracted from, Annona reticulata, which is commonly known as Anona.
Coclaurine is a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist which has been isolated from a variety of plant sources including Nelumbo nucifera, Sarcopetalum harveyanum, Ocotea duckei, and others. It belongs to the class of tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids. Dimerization of coclaurine leads to the biscoclaurine alkaloids such as cepharanthine.
