Bronchitis

Last updated
Bronchitis
Bronchitis.jpg
Figure A shows the location of the lungs and bronchial tubes. Figure B is an enlarged view of a normal bronchial tube. Figure C is an enlarged view of a bronchial tube with bronchitis.
Pronunciation
Specialty Infectious disease, pulmonology
Symptoms Coughing up mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, chest discomfort [1]
TypesAcute, chronic [1]
FrequencyAcute: ~5% of people a year [2] [3]
Chronic: ~5% of people [3]

Bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchi (large and medium-sized airways) in the lungs that causes coughing. Bronchitis usually begins as an infection in the nose, ears, throat, or sinuses. The infection then makes its way down to the bronchi. Symptoms include coughing up sputum, wheezing, shortness of breath, and chest pain. Bronchitis can be acute or chronic. [1]

Contents

Acute bronchitis usually has a cough that lasts around three weeks, [4] and is also known as a chest cold. [5] In more than 90% of cases, the cause is a viral infection. [4] These viruses may be spread through the air when people cough or by direct contact. [6] A small number of cases are caused by a bacterial infection such as Mycoplasma pneumoniae or Bordetella pertussis . [4] Risk factors include exposure to tobacco smoke, dust, and other air pollution. [6] Treatment of acute bronchitis typically involves rest, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to help with the fever. [7] [8]

Chronic bronchitis is defined as a productive cough – one that produces sputum – that lasts for three months or more per year for at least two years. [9] [10] Many people with chronic bronchitis also have chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). [11] Tobacco smoking is the most common cause, with a number of other factors such as air pollution and genetics playing a smaller role. [12] Treatments include quitting smoking, vaccinations, rehabilitation, and often inhaled bronchodilators and steroids. [13] Some people may benefit from long-term oxygen therapy. [13]

Acute bronchitis is one of the more common diseases. [7] [14] About 5% of adults and 6% of children have at least one episode a year. [2] [15] Acute bronchitis is the most common type of bronchitis. [16] By contrast in the United States, in 2018, 9.3 million people were diagnosed with the less common chronic bronchitis. [17] [18]

Acute bronchitis

Bronchitis Bronchitis.png
Bronchitis

Acute bronchitis, also known as a chest cold, is short term inflammation of the bronchi of the lungs. [4] [6] The most common symptom is a cough, that may or may not produce sputum. [4] [19] Other symptoms may include coughing up mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, fever, and chest discomfort. [6] Fever when present is mild. [20] The infection may last from a few to ten days. [6] The cough may persist for several weeks afterwards, with the total duration of symptoms usually around three weeks. [4] [6] Symptoms may last for up to six weeks. [7]

Cause

In more than 90% of cases, the cause is a viral infection. [4] These viruses may spread through the air when people cough or by direct contact. [6] Risk factors include exposure to tobacco smoke, dust, and other air pollutants. [6] A small number of cases are due to bacteria such as Mycoplasma pneumoniae or Bordetella pertussis . [4]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is typically based on a person's signs and symptoms. [20] The color of the sputum does not indicate if the infection is viral or bacterial. [4] Determining the underlying organism is usually not required. [4] Other causes of similar symptoms include asthma, pneumonia, bronchiolitis, bronchiectasis, and COPD. [2] [4] A chest X-ray may be useful to detect pneumonia. [4]

Another common sign of bronchitis is a cough which lasts ten days to three weeks. If the cough lasts for longer than a month, it may become chronic bronchitis. In addition, a fever may be present. Acute bronchitis is normally caused by a viral infection. Typically, these infections are rhinovirus, adenovirus, parainfluenza, or influenza. No specific testing is normally needed in order to diagnose acute bronchitis. [20]

Treatment

One form of prevention is to avoid smoking and other lung irritants. [21] Frequent hand washing may also be protective. [21] Treatment for acute bronchitis usually involves rest, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and NSAIDs to help with the fever. [7] [8] Cough medicine has little support for its use, and is not recommended in children under the age of six. [4] [22] There is tentative evidence that salbutamol may be useful in treating wheezing; however, it may result in nervousness and tremors. [4] [23] Antibiotics should generally not be used. [19] An exception is when acute bronchitis is due to pertussis. [4] Tentative evidence supports honey and pelargonium to help with symptoms. [4] Getting plenty of rest and drinking enough fluids are often recommended as well. [24] Chinese medicinal herbs are of unclear effect. [25]

Epidemiology

Acute bronchitis is one of the most common diseases. [7] [14] About 5% of adults are affected, and about 6% of children have at least one episode a year. [2] [15] It occurs more often in the winter. [2] More than 10 million people in the US visit a doctor each year for this condition, with about 70% receiving antibiotics which are mostly not needed. [7] There are efforts to decrease the use of antibiotics in acute bronchitis. [14] Acute bronchitis is the most common type of bronchitis. [5]

Chronic bronchitis

Chronic bronchitis is a lower respiratory tract disease, [26] defined by a productive cough that lasts for three months or more per year for at least two years. [1] [10] The cough is sometimes referred to as a smoker's cough since it often results from smoking. When chronic bronchitis occurs together with decreased airflow it is known as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). [27] [26] Many people with chronic bronchitis have COPD, however most people with COPD do not also have chronic bronchitis. [10] [28] Estimates of the number of people with COPD who have chronic bronchitis are 7 to 40%. [29] [30] Estimates of the number of people who smoke and have chronic bronchitis who also have COPD is 60%. [31]

The term "chronic bronchitis" was used in previous definitions of COPD but is no longer included in the definition. [10] [32] [33] The term is still used clinically. [34] While both chronic bronchitis and emphysema are often associated with COPD, neither is needed to make the diagnosis. [34] A Chinese consensus commented on symptomatic types of COPD that include chronic bronchitis with frequent exacerbations. [35]

Chronic bronchitis is marked by mucus hypersecretion and mucins. [9] [36] The excess mucus is produced by an increased number of goblet cells, and enlarged submucosal glands in response to long-term irritation. [37] The mucous glands in the submucosa secrete more than the goblet cells. [38] Mucins thicken mucus, and their concentration has been found to be high in cases of chronic bronchitis, and also to correlate with the severity of the disease. [39] Excess mucus can narrow the airways, thereby limiting airflow and accelerating the decline in lung function, and result in COPD. [35] [40] Excess mucus shows itself as a chronic productive cough and its severity and volume of sputum can fluctuate in periods of acute exacerbations. [35] In COPD, those with the chronic bronchitic phenotype with associated chronic excess mucus, experience a worse quality of life than those without. [35] [41]

The increased secretions are initially cleared by coughing. [36] The cough is often worse soon after awakening, and the sputum produced may have a yellow or green color and may be streaked with specks of blood. [42] In the early stages, a cough can maintain mucus clearance. However, with continued excessive secretion mucus clearance is impaired, and when the airways become obstructed a cough becomes ineffective. [43] Effective mucociliary clearance depends on airway hydration, ciliary beating, and the rates of mucin secretion. Each of these factors is impaired in chronic bronchitis. [44] Chronic bronchitis can lead to a higher number of exacerbations and a faster decline in lung function. [40] [45] The ICD-11 lists chronic bronchitis with emphysema (emphysematous bronchitis) as a "certain specified COPD". [46] [47]

Cause

Most cases of chronic bronchitis are caused by tobacco smoking. [48] [49] Chronic bronchitis in young adults who smoke is associated with a greater chance of developing COPD. [50] There is an association between smoking cannabis and chronic bronchitis. [51] [52] In addition, chronic inhalation of air pollution, or irritating fumes or dust from hazardous exposures in occupations such as coal mining, grain handling, textile manufacturing, livestock farming, [53] and metal moulding may also be a risk factor for the development of chronic bronchitis. [54] [55] [56] Bronchitis caused in this way is often referred to as industrial bronchitis, or occupational bronchitis. [57] Rarely genetic factors also play a role. [58]

Air quality can also affect the respiratory system with higher levels of nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide contributing to bronchial symptoms. Sulfur dioxide can cause inflammation which can aggravate chronic bronchitis and make infections more likely. [59]

Air pollution in the workplace is the cause of several non-communicable diseases (NCDs) including chronic bronchitis. [60]

Treatment

Decline in lung function in chronic bronchitis may be slowed by stopping smoking. [61] [62] Chronic bronchitis may be treated with a number of medications and occasionally oxygen therapy. [1] Pulmonary rehabilitation may also be used. [1]

A distinction has been made between exacerbations (sudden worsenings) of chronic bronchitis, and otherwise stable chronic bronchitis. Stable chronic bronchitis can be defined as the normal definition of chronic bronchitis, plus the absence of an acute exacerbation in the previous four weeks. [45] A Cochrane review found that mucolytics in chronic bronchitis may slightly decrease the chance of developing an exacerbation. [63] The mucolytic guaifenesin is a safe and effective treatment for stable chronic bronchitis. This has an advantage in that it is available as an extended use tablet which lasts for twelve hours. [64] Erdosteine is a mucolytic recommended by NICE. [65] GOLD also supports the use of some mucolytics that are advised against when inhaled corticosteroids are being used, and singles out erdosteine as having good effects regardless of corticosteroid use. Erdosteine also has antioxidant properties. Erdosteine has been shown to significantly reduce the risk of exacerbations, shorten their duration, and hospital stays. [66] In those with the chronic bronchitic phenotype of COPD, the phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor roflumilast may decrease significant exacerbations. [37]

Epidemiology

Chronic bronchitis affects about 3.4% to 22% of the general population.[ citation needed ] Individuals over 45 years of age, smokers, those that live or work in areas with high air pollution, and anybody with asthma all have a higher risk of developing chronic bronchitis. [67] This wide range is due to the different definitions of chronic bronchitis that can be diagnosed based on signs and symptoms or the clinical diagnosis of the disorder. Chronic bronchitis tends to affect men more often than women. While the primary risk factor for chronic bronchitis is smoking, there is still a 4%-22% chance that non smokers can get chronic bronchitis. This might suggest other risk factors such as the inhalation of fuels, dusts, fumes and genetic factor. [40] In the United States, in 2016, 8.6 million people were diagnosed with chronic bronchitis, and there were 518 reported deaths. Per 100,000 of population the death rate of chronic bronchitis was 0.2. [17]

History

The condition of bronchitis has been recognised for many centuries, in several different cultures including the Ancient Greek, Chinese, and Indian, with the presence of excess phlegm and cough noted in recognition of the same condition. Early treatments of chronic bronchitis included garlic, cinnamon and ipecac, among others. [68] Modern treatments were developed during the second half of the 20th century. [69]

The British physician Charles Badham was the first person to describe the condition and name the acute form as acute bronchitis in his book Observations on the inflammatory affections of the mucous membrane of the bronchiæ, published in 1808. In this book, Badham distinguished three forms of bronchitis, including acute and chronic. A second, expanded edition of the book was published in 1814 with the title An essay on bronchitis. [68] Badham used the term catarrh to refer to the cardinal symptoms of chronic cough and mucus hypersecretion of chronic bronchitis, and described chronic bronchitis as a disabling disorder. [70]

In 1901 an article was published on the treatment of chronic bronchitis in the elderly. The symptoms described have remained unchanged. The cause was thought to be brought on by dampness, cold weather, and foggy conditions, and treatments were aimed towards various cough mixtures, respiratory stimulants, and tonics. It was noted that something other than the weather was thought to be at play. [71] Exacerbations of the condition were also described at this time. Another physician Harry Campbell was referred to who had written in the British Medical Journal a week before. Campbell had suggested that the cause of chronic bronchitis was due to toxic substances, and recommended pure air, simple food, and exercise to remove them from the body. [71]

A joint research programme was undertaken in Chicago and London from 1951 to 1953 in which the clinical features of one thousand cases of chronic bronchitis were detailed. The findings were published in the Lancet in 1953. [72] It was stated that since its introduction by Badham, chronic bronchitis had become an increasingly popular diagnosis. The study had looked at various associations such as the weather, conditions at home, and at work, age of onset, childhood illnesses, smoking habits, and breathlessness. It was concluded that chronic bronchitis invariably led to emphysema, particularly when the bronchitis had persisted for a long time. [72]

In 1957 it was noted that at the time there were many investigations being carried out into chronic bronchitis and emphysema in general, and among industrial workers exposed to dust. [73] Excerpts were published dating from 1864 in which Charles Parsons had noted the occurring consequence of the development of emphysema from bronchitis. This was seen to be not always applicable. His findings were in association with his studies on chronic bronchitis among pottery workers. [73]

A CIBA (now Novartis) meeting in 1959, and a meeting of the American Thoracic Society in 1962, defined chronic bronchitis as a component of COPD, in the terms that have not changed. [70] [74]

Eosinophilic bronchitis

Eosinophilic bronchitis is a chronic dry cough, defined by the presence of an increased number of a type of white blood cell known as eosinophils. It has a normal finding on X-ray and has no airflow limitation. [75]

Protracted bacterial bronchitis

Protracted bacterial bronchitis in children, is defined as a chronic productive cough with a positive bronchoalveolar lavage that resolves with antibiotics. [76] [77] Protracted bacterial bronchitis is usually caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae , non-typable Haemophilus influenzae , or Moraxella catarrhalis . [77] Protracted bacterial bronchitis (lasting more than 4 weeks) in children may be helped by antibiotics. [78]

Plastic bronchitis

Plastic bronchitis bronchial casts Plastic bronchitis casts.png
Plastic bronchitis bronchial casts

Plastic bronchitis is a rarely found condition in which thickened secretions plug the bronchi. [80] [81] The plugs are rubbery or plastic-feeling (thus the name). The light-colored plugs take the branching shape of the bronchi that they fill, and are known as bronchial casts. [80] When these casts are coughed up, they are firmer in texture from typical phlegm or the short, softer mucus plugs seen in some people with asthma. [80] However, some people with asthma have larger, firmer, and more complex plugs. These differ from the casts seen in people whose plastic bronchitis is associated with congenital heart disease or lymphatic vessel abnormalities mainly because eosinophils and Charcot–Leyden crystals are present in the asthma-associated casts but not in the others. [80]

Casts obstruct the airflow, and can result in the overinflation of the opposite lung. Plastic bronchitis usually occurs in children. Some cases may result from abnormalities in the lymphatic vessels. Advanced cases may show imaging similarities to bronchiectasis. [81]

Aspergillus bronchitis

Aspergillus bronchitis is one of the Aspergillosis spectrum of diseases, in which the bronchi are specifically subject to a fungal infection. This differs from the other pulmonary aspergillosis conditions, in that it need not affect just the immunocompromised. [82] [83]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cough</span> Sudden expulsion of air from the lungs as a reflex to clear irritants

A cough is a sudden expulsion of air through the large breathing passages which can help clear them of fluids, irritants, foreign particles and microbes. As a protective reflex, coughing can be repetitive with the cough reflex following three phases: an inhalation, a forced exhalation against a closed glottis, and a violent release of air from the lungs following opening of the glottis, usually accompanied by a distinctive sound.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shortness of breath</span> Feeling of difficulty breathing

Shortness of breath (SOB), also medically known as dyspnea or dyspnoea, is an uncomfortable feeling of not being able to breathe well enough. The American Thoracic Society defines it as "a subjective experience of breathing discomfort that consists of qualitatively distinct sensations that vary in intensity", and recommends evaluating dyspnea by assessing the intensity of its distinct sensations, the degree of distress and discomfort involved, and its burden or impact on the patient's activities of daily living. Distinct sensations include effort/work to breathe, chest tightness or pain, and "air hunger". The tripod position is often assumed to be a sign.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemoptysis</span> Medical symptom consisting of bloody mucus from coughing

Hemoptysis or haemoptysis is the discharge of blood or blood-stained mucus through the mouth coming from the bronchi, larynx, trachea, or lungs. It does not necessarily involve coughing. In other words, it is the airway bleeding. This can occur with lung cancer, infections such as tuberculosis, bronchitis, or pneumonia, and certain cardiovascular conditions. Hemoptysis is considered massive at 300 mL. In such cases, there are always severe injuries. The primary danger comes from choking, rather than blood loss.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sputum</span> Mucus that is coughed up from the lower airways

Sputum is mucus that is coughed up from the lower airways. In medicine, sputum samples are usually used for a naked eye examination, microbiological investigation of respiratory infections and cytological investigations of respiratory systems. It is crucial that the specimen does not include any mucoid material from the nose or oral cavity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Respiratory tract</span> Organs involved in transmission of air to and from the point where gases diffuse into tissue

The respiratory tract is the subdivision of the respiratory system involved with the process of respiration in mammals. The respiratory tract is lined with respiratory epithelium as respiratory mucosa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acute bronchitis</span> Medical condition

Acute bronchitis, also known as a chest cold, is short-term bronchitis – inflammation of the bronchi of the lungs. The most common symptom is a cough. Other symptoms include coughing up mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, fever, and chest discomfort. The infection may last from a few to ten days. The cough may persist for several weeks afterward with the total duration of symptoms usually around three weeks. Some have symptoms for up to six weeks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phlegm</span> Mucus produced by the respiratory system (excluding the nasal passages)

Phlegm is mucus produced by the respiratory system, excluding that produced by the throat nasal passages. It often refers to respiratory mucus expelled by coughing, otherwise known as sputum. Phlegm, and mucus as a whole, is in essence a water-based gel consisting of glycoproteins, immunoglobulins, lipids and other substances. Its composition varies depending on climate, genetics, and state of the immune system. Its color can vary from transparent to pale or dark yellow and green, from light to dark brown, and even to dark grey depending on the constituents. The body naturally produces about 1 quart of phlegm every day to capture and clear substances in the air and bacteria from the nose and throat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency</span> Medical condition

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency is a genetic disorder that may result in lung disease or liver disease. Onset of lung problems is typically between 20 and 50 years of age. This may result in shortness of breath, wheezing, or an increased risk of lung infections. Complications may include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cirrhosis, neonatal jaundice, or panniculitis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bronchoconstriction</span> Constriction of the terminal airways in the lungs

Bronchoconstriction is the constriction of the airways in the lungs due to the tightening of surrounding smooth muscle, with consequent coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Respiratory disease</span> Disease of the respiratory system

Respiratory diseases, or lung diseases, are pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange difficult in air-breathing animals. They include conditions of the respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleurae, pleural cavity, the nerves and muscles of respiration. Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, influenza, and pharyngitis to life-threatening diseases such as bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, tuberculosis, acute asthma, lung cancer, and severe acute respiratory syndromes, such as COVID-19. Respiratory diseases can be classified in many different ways, including by the organ or tissue involved, by the type and pattern of associated signs and symptoms, or by the cause of the disease.

Occupational lung diseases comprise a broad group of diseases, including occupational asthma, industrial bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchiolitis obliterans, inhalation injury, interstitial lung diseases, infections, lung cancer and mesothelioma. These can be caused directly or due to immunological response to an exposure to a variety of dusts, chemicals, proteins or organisms. Occupational cases of interstitial lung disease may be misdiagnosed as COPD, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, or a myriad of other diseases; leading to a delay in identification of the causative agent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Erdosteine</span> Chemical to treat chronic bronchitis

Erdosteine is a molecule with mucolytic activity. Structurally it is a thiol derivative characterized by the presence of two thiol groups. These two functional sulfhydryl groups contained in the molecule are released following first-pass metabolism with the conversion of erdosteine into its pharmacologically active metabolite Met-I.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obstructive lung disease</span> Category of respiratory disease characterized by airway obstruction

Obstructive lung disease is a category of respiratory disease characterized by airway obstruction. Many obstructive diseases of the lung result from narrowing (obstruction) of the smaller bronchi and larger bronchioles, often because of excessive contraction of the smooth muscle itself. It is generally characterized by inflamed and easily collapsible airways, obstruction to airflow, problems exhaling, and frequent medical clinic visits and hospitalizations. Types of obstructive lung disease include; asthma, bronchiectasis, bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Although COPD shares similar characteristics with all other obstructive lung diseases, such as the signs of coughing and wheezing, they are distinct conditions in terms of disease onset, frequency of symptoms, and reversibility of airway obstruction. Cystic fibrosis is also sometimes included in obstructive pulmonary disease.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Diffuse panbronchiolitis</span> Inflammatory lung disease

Diffuse panbronchiolitis (DPB) is an inflammatory lung disease of unknown cause. It is a severe, progressive form of bronchiolitis, an inflammatory condition of the bronchioles. The term diffuse signifies that lesions appear throughout both lungs, while panbronchiolitis refers to inflammation found in all layers of the respiratory bronchioles. DPB causes severe inflammation and nodule-like lesions of terminal bronchioles, chronic sinusitis, and intense coughing with large amounts of sputum production.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</span> Medical condition

An acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis (AECB), is a sudden worsening of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) symptoms including shortness of breath, quantity and color of phlegm that typically lasts for several days.

ELOM-080 is the active ingredient of the herbal medicine named GeloMyrtol forte. The acronym ELOM stands for the oils from Eucalyptus, Lemon, (Sweet) Orange and Myrtle that it contains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</span> Lung disease involving long-term poor airflow

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a type of progressive lung disease characterized by long-term respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation. The main symptoms of COPD include shortness of breath and a cough, which may or may not produce mucus. COPD progressively worsens, with everyday activities such as walking or dressing becoming difficult. While COPD is incurable, it is preventable and treatable. The two most common types of COPD are emphysema and chronic bronchitis and have been the two classic COPD phenotypes. However, this basic dogma has been challenged as varying degrees of co-existing emphysema, chronic bronchitis, and potentially significant vascular diseases have all been acknowledged in those with COPD, giving rise to the classification of other phenotypes or subtypes. Emphysema is defined as enlarged airspaces (alveoli) whose walls have broken down resulting in permanent damage to the lung tissue. Chronic bronchitis is defined as a productive cough that is present for at least three months each year for two years. Both of these conditions can exist without airflow limitation when they are not classed as COPD. Emphysema is just one of the structural abnormalities that can limit airflow and can exist without airflow limitation in a significant number of people. Chronic bronchitis does not always result in airflow limitation but in young adults with chronic bronchitis who smoke, the risk of developing COPD is high. Many definitions of COPD in the past included emphysema and chronic bronchitis, but these have never been included in GOLD report definitions. Emphysema and chronic bronchitis remain the predominant phenotypes of COPD but there is often overlap between them and a number of other phenotypes have also been described. COPD and asthma may coexist and converge in some individuals. COPD is associated with low-grade systemic inflammation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emphysema</span> Medical condition

Emphysema is any air-filled enlargement in the body's tissues. Most commonly emphysema refers to the enlargement of air spaces (alveoli) in the lungs, and is also known as pulmonary emphysema.

Chronic cough is long-term coughing, sometimes defined as more than several weeks or months. Generally a cough lasting for more than eight weeks for an adult would meet the clinical definition of a chronic cough; and for children this threshold is lower. The term can be used to describe the different causes related to coughing, the three main ones being upper airway cough syndrome, asthma and gastroesophageal reflux disease. It occurs in the upper airway of the respiratory system. Generally, a cough lasts around one to two weeks; however, chronic cough can persist for an extended period of time defined as six weeks or longer. People with chronic cough often experience more than one cause present. Due to the nature of the syndrome, the treatments used are similar; however, there are a subsequent number of treatments available, and the clinical management of the patients remains a challenge.

Airway basal cells are found deep in the respiratory epithelium, attached to, and lining the basement membrane.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Bronchitis". NHLBI. Retrieved 9 June 2019.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Wenzel, RP; Fowler AA, 3rd (16 November 2006). "Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis". The New England Journal of Medicine. 355 (20): 2125–30. doi:10.1056/nejmcp061493. PMID   17108344.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  3. 1 2 Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, Lozano R, Michaud C, Ezzati M, Shibuya K, Salomon JA, Abdalla S, Aboyans V, et al. (December 2012). "Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010". Lancet. 380 (9859): 2163–96. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2. PMC   6350784 . PMID   23245607.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Kin, S (1 October 2016). "Acute Bronchitis". American Family Physician. 94 (7): 560–565. PMID   27929206.
  5. 1 2 "Antibiotics Aren't Always the Answer". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 25 September 2017.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "What Is Bronchitis?". August 4, 2011. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Tackett, KL; Atkins, A (December 2012). "Evidence-based acute bronchitis therapy". Journal of Pharmacy Practice. 25 (6): 586–90. doi: 10.1177/0897190012460826 . PMID   23076965. S2CID   37651935.
  8. 1 2 "How Is Bronchitis Treated?". August 4, 2011. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015.
  9. 1 2 "Bronchitis, Chronic". Medical Subject Headings . National Library of Medicine. MeSH   D029481 . Retrieved 2023-03-16.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease - GOLD (PDF). 2018. pp. 4–5, 25. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
  11. ↑ Reilly, John J.; Silverman, Edwin K.; Shapiro, Steven D. (2011). "Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease". In Longo, Dan; Fauci, Anthony; Kasper, Dennis; Hauser, Stephen; Jameson, J.; Loscalzo, Joseph (eds.). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (18th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 2151–9. ISBN   978-0-07-174889-6.
  12. ↑ Decramer M, Janssens W, Miravitlles M (April 2012). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Lancet. 379 (9823): 1341–51. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.1000.1967 . doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60968-9. PMC   7172377 . PMID   22314182.
  13. 1 2 Rabe KF, Hurd S, Anzueto A, Barnes PJ, Buist SA, Calverley P, Fukuchi Y, Jenkins C, Rodriguez-Roisin R, van Weel C, Zielinski J (September 2007). "Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: GOLD executive summary". Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 176 (6): 532–55. doi:10.1164/rccm.200703-456SO. hdl: 2066/51740 . PMID   17507545. S2CID   20863981.
  14. 1 2 3 Braman, SS (January 2006). "Chronic cough due to acute bronchitis: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 129 (1 Suppl): 95S–103S. doi:10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.95S. PMC   7094612 . PMID   16428698.
  15. 1 2 Fleming, DM; Elliot, AJ (March 2007). "The management of acute bronchitis in children". Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 8 (4): 415–26. doi:10.1517/14656566.8.4.415. PMID   17309336. S2CID   46247982.
  16. ↑ "Bronchitis". WebMD. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  17. 1 2 "FastStats". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 23 May 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2019.
  18. ↑ Villarroel, MA; Blackwell, DL; Jen, A (2019), "Summary Health Statistics: National Health Interview Survey, 2018" (PDF), ftp.cdc.gov, retrieved 22 March 2020
  19. 1 2 Smith, Susan M.; Fahey, Tom; Smucny, John; Becker, Lorne A. (2017). "Antibiotics for acute bronchitis". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2017 (6): CD000245. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000245.pub4. hdl:10779/rcsi.10778735.v1. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   6481481 . PMID   28626858.
  20. 1 2 3 Sethi, Sanjay (May 2023). "Acute Bronchitis". Merck Manuals Professional Edition.
  21. 1 2 "How Can Bronchitis Be Prevented?". NIH. August 4, 2011. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
  22. ↑ Smith, SM; Schroeder, K; Fahey, T (24 November 2014). "Over-the-counter (OTC) medications for acute cough in children and adults in community settings". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 11 (11): CD001831. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001831.pub5. PMC   7061814 . PMID   25420096.
  23. ↑ Becker, Lorne A.; Hom, Jeffrey; Villasis-Keever, Miguel; van der Wouden, Johannes C. (2015-09-03). "Beta2-agonists for acute cough or a clinical diagnosis of acute bronchitis". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015 (9): CD001726. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001726.pub5. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   7078572 . PMID   26333656.
  24. ↑ "Acute Bronchitis | Bronchitis Symptoms | MedlinePlus" . Retrieved 2017-11-30.
  25. ↑ Jiang, Lanhui; Li, Ka; Wu, Taixiang (15 February 2012). "Chinese medicinal herbs for acute bronchitis". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2012 (2): CD004560. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004560.pub4. PMC   7202254 . PMID   22336804.
  26. 1 2 "ICD-11 - ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics". icd.who.int. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
  27. ↑ "Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) - Pulmonary Disorders". MSD Manual Professional Edition. Retrieved 3 June 2019. Chronic bronchitis becomes chronic obstructive bronchitis if spirometric evidence of airflow obstruction develops.
  28. ↑ Widysanto, A; Mathew, G (January 2019). "Chronic Bronchitis". StatPearls [Internet]. PMID   29494044. NBK482437. Chronic bronchitis ... is very often secondary to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
  29. ↑ Lee, Sang-Do (2017). COPD: Heterogeneity and Personalized Treatment. Springer. p. 150. ISBN   9783662471784.
  30. ↑ Maselli, DJ (May 2019). "Clinical Epidemiology of COPD: Insights From 10 Years of the COPDGene Study". Chest. 156 (2): 228–238. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2019.04.135. PMC   7198872 . PMID   31154041.
  31. ↑ Dotan, Y; So, JY; Kim, V (9 April 2019). "Chronic Bronchitis: Where Are We Now?". Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases. 6 (2): 178–192. doi:10.15326/jcopdf.6.2.2018.0151. PMC   6596437 . PMID   31063274. with CB by symptoms (18.9%), approximately 60% had COPD (i.e., had also airflow obstruction on spirometry)
  32. ↑ "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)". www.who.int. Retrieved 15 July 2019. The more familiar terms "chronic bronchitis" and "emphysema" have often been used as labels for the condition.
  33. ↑ "COPD: Definition". WHO. Retrieved 15 July 2019. The more familiar terms 'chronic bronchitis' and 'emphysema' are no longer used, but are now included within the COPD diagnosis.
  34. 1 2 Ferri, Fred (2019). Ferri's Clinical Advisor. Elsevier. p. 331. ISBN   9780323530422.
  35. 1 2 3 4 Shen, Y (30 January 2018). "Management of airway mucus hypersecretion in chronic airway inflammatory disease: Chinese expert consensus (English edition)". International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. 13: 399–407. doi: 10.2147/COPD.S144312 . PMC   5796802 . PMID   29430174.
  36. 1 2 Voynow, J (Feb 2009). "Mucins, mucus, and sputum". Chest. 135 (2): 505–512. doi:10.1378/chest.08-0412. PMID   19201713.
  37. 1 2 Vestbo, J.; Hurd, S. S.; Agustí, A. G.; Jones, P. W.; Vogelmeier, C.; Anzueto, A.; Barnes, P. J.; Fabbri, L. M.; Martinez, F. J.; Nishimura, M.; Stockley, R. A.; Sin, D. D.; Rodriguez-Roisin, R. (2013). "Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: GOLD executive summary". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 187 (4): 347–65. doi:10.1164/rccm.201204-0596PP. PMID   22878278.
  38. ↑ Weinberger, Steven (2019). Principles of Pulmonary Medicine. Elsevier. p. 98. ISBN   9780323523714.
  39. ↑ "New Insights on Chronic Bronchitis:Diagnostic Test and Better Treatments on the Horizon". nhlbi.nih.gov. September 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2019.
  40. 1 2 3 Kim, V; Criner, G (Feb 2013). "Chronic bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 187 (3): 228–237. doi:10.1164/rccm.201210-1843CI. PMC   4951627 . PMID   23204254.
  41. ↑ Global Strategy for Prevention, Diagnosis and Management of COPD: 2021 Report (PDF). Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. 25 November 2020. p. 106. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  42. ↑ Cohen, Jonathan; Powderly, William (2004). Infectious Diseases, 2nd ed. Mosby (Elsevier). Chapter 33: Bronchitis, Bronchiectasis, and Cystic Fibrosis. ISBN   978-0323025737.
  43. ↑ Foster, W (2002). "Mucociliary transport and cough in humans". Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 15 (3): 277–282. doi:10.1006/pupt.2002.0351. PMID   12099778.
  44. ↑ Ghosh, A (October 2015). "Airway hydration and COPD". Cell Mol Life Sci. 72 (19): 3637–52. doi:10.1007/s00018-015-1946-7. PMC   4567929 . PMID   26068443.
  45. 1 2 Ohar, JA; Donohue, JF; Spangenthal, S (23 October 2019). "The Role of Guaifenesin in the Management of Chronic Mucus Hypersecretion Associated with Stable Chronic Bronchitis: A Comprehensive Review". Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases. 6 (4): 341–349. doi: 10.15326/jcopdf.6.4.2019.0139 . PMC   7006698 . PMID   31647856.
  46. ↑ "ICD-11 - Mortality and Morbidity Statistics". icd.who.int.
  47. ↑ "ICD-11 - Mortality and Morbidity Statistics". icd.who.int.
  48. ↑ "Understanding Chronic Bronchitis". American Lung Association. 2012. Archived from the original on 18 December 2012. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
  49. ↑ Forey, BA; Thornton, AJ; Lee, PN (June 2011). "Systematic review with meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence relating smoking to COPD, chronic bronchitis and emphysema". BMC Pulmonary Medicine. 11 (36): 36. doi: 10.1186/1471-2466-11-36 . PMC   3128042 . PMID   21672193.
  50. ↑ Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (PDF). 2019. p. 13. Retrieved 25 May 2019.
  51. ↑ Ribeiro, L (October 2016). "Effect of cannabis smoking on lung function and respiratory symptoms: a structured literature review". npj Primary Care Respiratory Medicine. 26: 16071. doi:10.1038/npjpcrm.2016.71. PMC   5072387 . PMID   27763599.
  52. ↑ Pfeifer, A (May 2006). "Pulmonary consequences of marijuana smoking". Ugeskr Laeger. 168 (18): 1743–6. PMID   16729923.
  53. ↑ Szczyrek, M; Krawczyk, P; Milanowski, J; Jastrzebska, I; Zwolak, A; Daniluk, J (2011). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in farmers and agricultural workers-an overview". Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine. 18 (2): 310–313. PMID   22216804.
  54. ↑ Fischer, BM; Pavlisko, E; Voynow, JA (2011). "Pathogenic triad in COPD: oxidative stress, protease-antiprotease imbalance, and inflammation". International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. 6: 413–421. doi: 10.2147/COPD.S10770 . PMC   3157944 . PMID   21857781.
  55. ↑ National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (2009). "Who Is at Risk for Bronchitis?". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
  56. ↑ National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (2012). "Respiratory Diseases Input: Occupational Risks". NIOSH Program Portfolio. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 20 December 2012. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
  57. ↑ "Industrial bronchitis: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 28 May 2019.
  58. ↑ "What Causes COPD". American Lung Association. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
  59. ↑ "Ambient (outdoor) air quality and health". who.int. 2 May 2018. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
  60. ↑ "Protecting workers' health". who.int. November 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
  61. ↑ Fauci, Anthony S.; Daniel L. Kasper; Dan L. Longo; Eugene Braunwald; Stephen L. Hauser; J. Larry Jameson (2008). Chapter 254. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine (17th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN   978-0-07-147691-1.
  62. ↑ Willemse, BW; Postma, DS; Timens, W; ten Hacken, NH (March 2004). "The impact of smoking cessation on respiratory symptoms, lung function, airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation". The European Respiratory Journal. 23 (3): 464–476. doi: 10.1183/09031936.04.00012704 . PMID   15065840.
  63. ↑ Poole, Phillippa; Sathananthan, K; Fortescue, R (May 2019). "Mucolytic agents versus placebo for chronic bronchitis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 5 (7): CD001287. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001287.pub6. PMC   6527426 . PMID   31107966.
  64. ↑ Albrecht, H. H.; Dicpinigaitis, P. V.; Guenin, E. P. (2017). "Role of guaifenesin in the management of chronic bronchitis and upper respiratory tract infections". Multidisciplinary Respiratory Medicine. 12: 31. doi: 10.1186/s40248-017-0113-4 . PMC   5724298 . PMID   29238574.
  65. ↑ "Erdosteine". NICE. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  66. ↑ Meldrum OW, Chotirmall SH (June 2021). "Mucus, Microbiomes and Pulmonary Disease". Biomedicines. 9 (6): 675. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines9060675 . PMC   8232003 . PMID   34199312.
  67. ↑ Kochanek, Kenneth (June 2016). "Deaths: Final Data for 2014" (PDF). National Vital Statistics Reports. 65 (4): 1–122. PMID   27378572.
  68. 1 2 Ziment I (1991). "History of the treatment of chronic bronchitis". Respiration; International Review of Thoracic Diseases. 58 (Suppl 1): 37–42. doi:10.1159/000195969. PMID   1925077.
  69. ↑ Fishman AP (May 2005). "One hundred years of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 171 (9): 941–8. doi:10.1164/rccm.200412-1685OE. PMID   15849329.
  70. 1 2 Petty, TL (2006). "The history of COPD". International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. 1 (1): 3–14. doi: 10.2147/copd.2006.1.1.3 . PMC   2706597 . PMID   18046898.
  71. 1 2 "Chronic Bronchitis". The Hospital. 31 (786): 48–49. 19 October 1901. PMC   5211570 . PMID   29819251.
  72. 1 2 Oswald, NC; Harold, JT; Martin, WJ (26 September 1953). "Clinical pattern of chronic bronchitis". Lancet. 265 (6787): 639–43. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(53)90369-9. PMID   13098028.
  73. 1 2 Meiklejohn, A (July 1957). "A house-surgeon's observations on bronchitis in North Staffordshire pottery workers in 1864". British Journal of Industrial Medicine. 14 (3): 211–2. doi:10.1136/oem.14.3.211. PMC   1037807 . PMID   13446354.
  74. ↑ "Terminology, Definitions, and Classification of Chronic Pulmonary Emphysema and Related Conditions: A Report of the Conclusions of a Ciba Guest Symposium". Thorax. 14 (4): 286–299. December 1959. doi:10.1136/thx.14.4.286. PMC   1018516 .
  75. ↑ Longo, Dan (2012). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. McGraw Hill. p. 284. ISBN   9780071748896.
  76. ↑ Goldsobel, AB; Chipps, BE (March 2010). "Cough in the pediatric population". The Journal of Pediatrics. 156 (3): 352–358.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.12.004. PMID   20176183.
  77. 1 2 Craven, V; Everard, ML (January 2013). "Protracted bacterial bronchitis: reinventing an old disease". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 98 (1): 72–76. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2012-302760. PMID   23175647. S2CID   34977990.
  78. ↑ Marchant, JM; Petsky, HL; Morris, PS; Chang, AB (31 July 2018). "Antibiotics for prolonged wet cough in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018 (7): CD004822. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004822.pub3. PMC   6513288 . PMID   30062732.
  79. ↑ Kamaltynova, E. M.; Krivoshchekov, E. V.; Yanulevich, O. S.; Kavardakova, E. S. (2017-08-11). "Plastic bronchitis associated with corrected cardiac anomaly in a child". Bulletin of Siberian Medicine. 16 (2): 180–186. doi: 10.20538/1682-0363-2017-2-180-186 . ISSN   1819-3684.
  80. 1 2 3 4 Kotloff, Robert; McCormack, Francis X. (2016-08-16). Rare and Orphan Lung Diseases, An Issue of Clinics in Chest Medicine, E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 405–408. ISBN   978-0-323-46274-7.
  81. 1 2 Panchabhai, TS; Mukhopadhyay, S; Sehgal, S; Bandyopadhyay, D; Erzurum, SC; Mehta, AC (November 2016). "Plugs of the Air Passages: A Clinicopathologic Review". Chest. 150 (5): 1141–1157. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2016.07.003. PMC   6026239 . PMID   27445091.
  82. ↑ "Aspergillus bronchitis | Aspergillus & Aspergillosis Website". www.aspergillus.org.uk.
  83. ↑ Kosmidis, Chris; Denning, David W. (1 March 2015). "The clinical spectrum of pulmonary aspergillosis". Thorax. 70 (3): 270–277. doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2014-206291 . PMID   25354514 . Retrieved 8 November 2019.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.