Phosmet

Last updated
Phosmet [1]
Phosmet.png
Phosmet-3D-balls.png
Names
Preferred IUPAC name
S-[(1,3-Dioxo-1,3-dihydro-2H-isoindol-2-yl)methyl] O,O-dimethyl phosphorothioate
Other names
Fosmet
Decemthion
Imidathion
Imidan
Phthalophos
Identifiers
3D model (JSmol)
ChEBI
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard 100.010.899 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
KEGG
PubChem CID
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C11H12NO4PS2/c1-15-17(18,16-2)19-7-12-10(13)8-5-3-4-6-9(8)11(12)14/h3-6H,7H2,1-2H3 Yes check.svgY
    Key: LMNZTLDVJIUSHT-UHFFFAOYSA-N Yes check.svgY
  • InChI=1/C11H12NO4PS2/c1-15-17(18,16-2)19-7-12-10(13)8-5-3-4-6-9(8)11(12)14/h3-6H,7H2,1-2H3
    Key: LMNZTLDVJIUSHT-UHFFFAOYAV
  • O=C2c1ccccc1C(=O)N2CSP(=S)(OC)OC
Properties
C11H12NO4PS2
Molar mass 317.31 g·mol−1
AppearanceWhite to off-white crystals
Density 1.03 g/cm3
Melting point 72 °C (162 °F; 345 K)
Boiling point Decomposes at >100 °C
Pharmacology
QP53AF06 ( WHO ) QP53BB03 ( WHO )
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
Yes check.svgY  verify  (what is  Yes check.svgYX mark.svgN ?)

Phosmet is a phthalimide-derived, non-systemic, organophosphate insecticide used on plants and animals. It is mainly used on apple trees for control of codling moth, though it is also used on a wide range of fruit crops, ornamentals, and vines for the control of aphids, suckers,[ clarification needed ] mites, and fruit flies. [2]

Contents

History

The first registered use of phosmet was in the United States in 1966, where it was used on a variety of crops including fruit trees (apple, pear, peach) and nut trees (almonds, walnuts) as a treatment for various pests such as the codling moth, leafrollers, and others. It has also been registered for use on cattle, swine, and dogs for treatment of lice, fleas, and ticks. It can also be used domestically for trees, bushes, and shrubs by homeowners. Phosmet is being used all over the world. [3]

Structure and reactivity

Phosmet is an organophosphate, consisting of a phthalimide and a dithiophosphate ester, with two methyl groups. The structure is a benzene ring connected to an imide, which is connected to the dithiophosphate.

Synthesis

Phosmet is produced by reaction of N-chloromethylphthalimide with dimethyldithiophosphoric acid. The former, in turn, can be prepared by the reaction of phthalimide with formaldehyde and hydrogen chloride. Phosmet can also be obtained through the condensation of phthalimide with formaldehyde and conversion of the product to chloride which is reacted with sodium dimethylphosphorodithioate. [4]

Phosmet synthesis Phosmet synthesis.svg
Phosmet synthesis

Mechanisms of action

As an organophosphate, phosmet competitively inhibits pseudocholinesterase and acetylcholinesterase (AChE), preventing hydrolysis and inactivation of acetylcholine. Its inhibitory effects on the AChE enzyme leads to a pathological excess of acetylcholine in the body. [5] Acetylcholine accumulates at nerve junctions, causing malfunction of the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and peripheral nervous systems and some of the central nervous system. Clinical signs of cholinergic excess can develop. [6] [7] The mechanism of inhibition consists of phosmet blocking the active site of the enzyme that binds the ester portion of acetylcholine. [6]

If signs of cholinesterase inhibition are present, atropine and pralidoxime are antidotal and may be coadministered. [7] [8]

Biotransformation

Absorption

The absorption of phosmet in the body is rapid, based on live rat studies, with almost complete absorption (84.4%) within 24 hours of administering dose. At 0.5 hours after dosing, it was observed that the peak concentration of blood and plasma concentrations are observed. The elimination of phosmet takes place in two phases. The first phase corresponds with the distribution of the compound to tissues and has an observed half life of 0.2 to 6 hours. The second phase corresponds with the direct elimination of the compound and has a significantly longer half life of 41 to 1543 hours. [9]

Distribution

The distribution of the compound can be observed and analyzed at every dosage in a variety of tissues. The areas that display the highest level of activity can be found in the liver and the whole blood as this is where the major metabolic process takes place. The lowest level of activity for the compound can be observed in the bone and fat of the individual. [9]

Excretion

The primary excretory pathway for phosmet is through the urine or feces, with greater than 70% of the compound being excreted through the former and about 4.5% to 9.9% being excreted in the latter; by 12 hours, more than 50% of the radioactivity can be seen to have been eliminated from an animal organism. There also seems to be a relationship between the dose given to an organism and the excretion of the compound as well the radioactivity; in live animal studies it is observed that at a higher dose, excretion of the compound is significantly slower than at lower doses. Inversely, there is a higher reported radioactivity with acute exposure rather than repeated exposure. [9]

Metabolism

In the metabolism of phosmet, there are two major metabolites that are produced and excreted in the urine, N-(methylsulfinylmethyl)-phthalamic acid (U3) and N-methylsulfonylmethyl)-phthalamic acid (U6). The compound undergoes a series of various chemical reactions include thiophosphoryl hydrolysis, S-methylation, hydrolysis of the phtalamide ring to the respective phtalamide acid. The process ends with the sulfoxidation, via an FAD-containing monooxygenase, of the sulfur into either sulfoxide (U3) or sulfone (U6). In addition, analysis of both rat and cockroach faeces and urine in live animal studies showed that phosmet is metabolized in the liver, oxidizing the compound into phosmet-oxon. This is further validated through an in vitro study using rat liver microsomes, for which C-phosmet is incubated with said microsomes, and confirming metabolization of compound. The resulting compound to the metabolism along with U3 and U6 metabolites, is the Phosmet oxygen analogue Phosmet-oxon. [9]

Side effects

Organophosphorus insecticides are the most widely used and are most frequently involved in fatal human poisonings. They may be absorbed through the skin, and there have been accidental poisoning cases arising from such exposure. Accidental contamination of food with insecticides is also possible.

The adverse effect of phosmet are caused by the inhibition of cholinesterases. Acute poisoning leads to uncontrollable muscle movement. Which can in severe cases lead to convulsions, respiratory depression and possible death if left untreated. [10]

An epidemiologic study on farmers which assessed their exposure from insecticides showed that farmers who applied phosmet to animals had measurable exposures, but the levels were lower than what had been seen in other pesticide applications. Inhalation exposures were insignificant when compared with dermal exposures, which came primarily from the hands. Clothing, particularly gloves, provided substantial protection from exposures. [11]

The accumulation of acetylcholine leads to symptoms that mimic the muscarinic, nicotinic, and central nervous system actions of acetylcholine.

Muscarinic signs and symptoms are tightness of the chest, bronchoconstriction, bradycardia, and constriction of the pupils. Salivation, lacrimation, and sweating are all increased, and peristalsis is also increased, leading to nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Nicotinic symptoms result from the accumulation of acetylcholine at motor nerve endings in skeletal muscle and ganglia. Thus, there is fatigue, involuntary twitching, and muscular weakness, which may affect the muscles of respiration.

Accumulation of acetylcholine in the CNS leads to a variety of signs and symptoms, including tension, anxiety, ataxia, convulsions, restlessness, insomnia and coma. [6]

Treatment

Poisoning by organophosphorus compounds can be treated and acute symptoms are able to be alleviated.

Pralidoxime can be administered to regenerate the acetylcholinesterase. It acts in place of the serine hydroxyl group in the enzyme and forming a complex with the organophosphorus moiety. It must be administered quickly after the poisoning. In addition, the physiological effects of the accumulation of acetylcholine can be antagonized by the administration of atropine.

Should atropine and pralidoxime be used in conjunction with one another, the result is a synergistic effect that is greater than if either were to be used separately. [6]

Toxicity

Phosmet is a moderately toxic compound, falling in EPA toxicity class II. [2]

Phosmet does not cause reproductive toxicity and it is not likely to cause teratogenic effects, but the available data is not sufficient to draw a firm conclusion about the carcinogenicity of phosmet. The primary target organ for Phosmet is the nervous system. [2]

Using the Margin of Exposure (MOE) approach to assess the risk of phosmet, the EPA deemed that there is little to no concern of phosmet having an MOE at or above 100. The primary toxicological endpoint of concern to the EPA is cholinesterase inhibition; a common toxic effect of organophosphate poisoning.

There is not a lot of data on the effect of phosmet in humans, but in rats the chemical was found to have an LD50 of 113 to 160 mg/kg through oral exposure, and an LD50 of 3160 to 4640 mg/kg through skin exposure. [12] The table below shows the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) and lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) of short and long-term exposure in rats. [13]

NOAELLOAEL
Short-term15 mg/kg/day22.5 mg/kg/day
Long-term1.1 mg/kg/day1.8 mg/kg/day

Fetal health

Research on phosmet's (and other organophosphate/chlorine insecticides) effect on the placenta indicate that phosmet has been found to enter the placenta and carryover to the fetus. [14] In addition, the compound has been shown to decrease PI 4-kinase activity in the nucleus, but has no effect on membrane PI 4-kinase. [15] Affecting PI 4-kinase activity suggests detrimental effects on different processes regulated by 4-phosphoinositides. However, more research is needed on the consequences of phosmet and other organophosphates on placenta physiopathology.

In vitro studies have shown phosmet induces apoptosis in trophoblasts, through oxidative stress. [16]

Endocrine system

Estrogens

Phosmet has been found to give positive results in aromatase inhibition assays, indicating phosmet decreases aromatase activity.

Androgens

Phosmet gives positive results in androgen receptor binding assays, this indicates that phosmet binds to androgen receptors.

More research is needed to find the physiological effects of aromatase inhibition and androgen receptor binding.

Safety

Phosmet is on the US Emergency Planning List of Extremely Hazardous Substances. It is highly toxic to bees. [2]

May be fatal if inhaled or absorbed through skin. [7]

The US EPA had no concern for acute dietary risk through food or water. There are however concerns for workers who are in contact with Phosmet through mixing, handling and loading who are at risk for inhalation or dermal exposure. [13]

Phosmet was recently banned in the European Union in 2022 the reason cited being its harmful effects however its true effects on environmental degradation are still being analyzed [17]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chlorfenvinphos</span> Chemical compound

Chlorfenvinphos is an organophosphorus compound that was widely used as an insecticide and an acaricide. The molecule itself can be described as an enol ester derived from dichloroacetophenone and diethylphosphonic acid. Chlorfenvinphos has been included in many products since its first use in 1963. However, because of its toxic effect as a cholinesterase inhibitor it has been banned in several countries, including the United States and the European Union. Its use in the United States was cancelled in 1991.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethion</span> Chemical compound

Ethion (C9H22O4P2S4) is an organophosphate insecticide. Ethion is known to affect a neural enzyme called acetylcholinesterase and prevent it from working.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fenthion</span> Chemical compound

Fenthion is an organothiophosphate insecticide, avicide, and acaricide. Like most other organophosphates, its mode of action is via cholinesterase inhibition. Due to its relatively low toxicity towards humans and mammals, fenthion is listed as moderately toxic compound in U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and World Health Organization toxicity class.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pralidoxime</span> Chemical compound as an antidote

Pralidoxime or 2-PAM, usually as the chloride or iodide salts, belongs to a family of compounds called oximes that bind to organophosphate-inactivated acetylcholinesterase. It is used to treat organophosphate poisoning in conjunction with atropine and either diazepam or midazolam. It is a white solid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Azinphos-methyl</span> Chemical compound

Azinphos-methyl (Guthion) is a broad spectrum organophosphate insecticide manufactured by Bayer CropScience, Gowan Co., and Makhteshim Agan. Like other pesticides in this class, it owes its insecticidal properties to the fact that it is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act, and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dioxathion</span> Chemical compound

Dioxathion, systematically known as p-dioxane-2,3-diyl ethyl phosphorodithioate, is an organophosphate pesticide. It is used as an insecticide on livestock and as an acaricide on citrus fruits, deciduous fruits and nuts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Organophosphate poisoning</span> Toxic effect of pesticides

Organophosphate poisoning is poisoning due to organophosphates (OPs). Organophosphates are used as insecticides, medications, and nerve agents. Symptoms include increased saliva and tear production, diarrhea, vomiting, small pupils, sweating, muscle tremors, and confusion. While onset of symptoms is often within minutes to hours, some symptoms can take weeks to appear. Symptoms can last for days to weeks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chlorethoxyfos</span> Chemical compound

Chlorethoxyfos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide. It is registered for the control of corn rootworms, wireworms, cutworms, seed corn maggot, white grubs and symphylans on corn. The insecticide is sold under the trade name Fortress by E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Disulfoton</span> Chemical compound

Disulfoton is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide. It is manufactured under the name Di-Syston by Bayer CropScience. Disulfoton in its pure form is a colorless oil but the technical product used in vegetable fields is dark and yellowish with a sulfur odor. Disulfoton is processed as a liquid into carrier granules, these granules are mixed with fertilizer and clay to be made into a spike, designed to be driven into the ground. The pesticide is absorbed over time by the roots and translocated to all parts of the plant. The pesticide acts as a cholinesterase inhibitor and gives long lasting control.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Demeton</span> Chemical compound

Demeton, sold as an amber oily liquid with a sulphur like odour under the name Systox, is an organophosphate derivative causing irritability and shortness of breath to individuals repeatedly exposed. It was used as a phosphorothioate insecticide and acaricide and has the chemical formula C8H19O3PS2. Although it was previously used as an insecticide, it is now largely obsolete due to its relatively high toxicity to humans. Demeton consists of two components, demeton-S and demeton-O in a ratio of approximately 2:1 respectively. The chemical structure of demeton is closely related to military nerve agents such as VX and a derivative with one of the ethoxy groups replaced by methyl was investigated by both the US and Soviet chemical-weapons programs under the names V.sub.X and GD-7.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbophenothion</span> Chemical compound

Carbophenothion also known as Stauffer R 1303 as for the manufacturer, Stauffer Chemical, is an organophosphorus chemical compound. It was used as a pesticide for citrus fruits under the name of Trithion. Carbophenothion was used as an insecticide and acaricide. Although not used anymore it is still a restricted use pesticide in the United States. The chemical is identified in the US as an extremely hazardous substance according to the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sulfotep</span> Chemical compound

Sulfotep (also known as tetraethyldithiopyrophosphate and TEDP) is a pesticide commonly used in greenhouses as a fumigant. The substance is also known as Dithione, Dithiophos, and many other names. Sulfotep has the molecular formula C8H20O5P2S2 and belongs to the organophosphate class of chemicals. It has a cholinergic effect, involving depression of the cholinesterase activity of the peripheral and central nervous system of insects. The transduction of signals is disturbed at the synapses that make use of acetylcholine. Sulfotep is a mobile oil that is pale yellow-colored and smells like garlic. It is primarily used as an insecticide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethoprophos</span> Chemical compound

Ethoprophos (or ethoprop) is an organophosphate ester with the formula C8H19O2PS2. It is a clear yellow to colourless liquid that has a characteristic mercaptan-like odour. It is used as an insecticide and nematicide and it is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Terbufos</span> Chemical compound

Terbufos is a chemical compound used in insecticides and nematicides. It is part of the chemical family of organophosphates. It is a clear, colourless to pale yellow or reddish-brown liquid and sold commercially as granulate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triamiphos</span> Chemical compound

Triamiphos (chemical formula: C12H19N6OP) is an organophosphate used as a pesticide and fungicide. It is used to control powdery mildews on apples and ornamentals. It was discontinued by the US manufacturer in 1998.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triazofos</span> Chemical compound

Triazofos is a chemical compound used in acaricides, insecticides, and nematicides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">EPN (insecticide)</span> Chemical compound

EPN is an insecticide of the phosphonothioate class. It is used against pests such as European corn borer, rice stem borer, bollworm, tobacco budworm, and boll weevil.

Carbamate poisoning is poisoning due to exposure to carbamates, which are commonly sold as pesticides around the world. In most respects, it is similar to organophosphate poisoning, though typically less severe or requiring a larger amount of the chemical before symptoms appear.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cadusafos</span> Thiosulfate insecticide against nematodes

Cadusafos is a chemical insecticide and nematicide often used against parasitic nematode populations. The compound acts as a acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. It belongs the chemical class of synthetic organic thiosulfates and it is a volatile and persistent clear liquid. It is used on food crops such as tomatoes, bananas and chickpeas. It is currently not approved by the European Commission for use in the EU. Exposure can occur through inhalation, ingestion or contact with the skin. The compound is highly toxic to nematodes, earthworms and birds but poses no carcinogenic risk to humans.

References

  1. ↑ "Phosmet Safety Card". Archived from the original on 2006-09-24. Retrieved 2006-08-06.
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Phosmet". EXTOXNET. 1996. Retrieved 2006-08-06.
  3. ↑ Environmental Protection Agency. (2006). Reregistration Eligibility Decision for Phosmet Washington, D.C.: Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances
  4. ↑ Müller, Franz; Streibert, Hans Peter; Farooq, Saleem (2009). "Acaricides". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. American Cancer Society. doi:10.1002/14356007.a01_017.pub2. ISBN   978-3527306732.
  5. ↑ "Frequently Asked Questions About Organophosphates". National Center for Environmental Health. CDC. Retrieved 2018-03-23.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Timbrell, John A. (2009). Principles of biochemical toxicology (4th ed.). New York: Informa Healthcare. ISBN   9780849373022. OCLC   243818515.
  7. 1 2 3 "HSDB: PHOSMET". TOXNET. U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Health & Human Services. Retrieved 2018-03-28.
  8. ↑ Pohanish, Richard P. Sittig's handbook of pesticides and agricultural chemicals (2nd ed.). Norwich, New York. ISBN   9781455731480. OCLC   893680450.
  9. 1 2 3 4 "CHL Report For Phosmet" (PDF).
  10. ↑ "Cholinesterase Inhibition". pmep.cce.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2018-03-23.
  11. ↑ Stewart, P. A.; Fears, T.; Kross, B.; Ogilvie, L.; Blair, A. (February 1999). "Exposure of farmers to phosmet, a swine insecticide". Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 25 (1): 33–38. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.380 . ISSN   0355-3140. PMID   10204668.
  12. ↑ "EXTOXNET PIP - PHOSMET". extoxnet.orst.edu. Retrieved 2024-03-14.
  13. 1 2 Environmental Protection Agency. (2007). Reregistration Decisions on Nine Phosmet “Time-Limited” Uses Washington, D.C.: Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances
  14. ↑ Waliszewski, S. M.; Aguirre, A. A.; Infanzón, R. M.; Siliceo, J. (September 2000). "Carry-over of persistent organochlorine pesticides through placenta to fetus". Salud Publica de Mexico. 42 (5): 384–390. doi: 10.1590/s0036-36342000000500003 . ISSN   0036-3634. PMID   11125622.
  15. ↑ Souza, María S.; Magnarelli de Potas, Gladis; Pechén de D'Angelo, Ana M. (2004). "Organophosphorous and organochlorine pesticides affect human placental phosphoinositides metabolism and PI-4 kinase activity". Journal of Biochemical and Molecular Toxicology. 18 (1): 30–36. doi:10.1002/jbt.20003. ISSN   1095-6670. PMID   14994277. S2CID   43310772.
  16. ↑ Guiñazú, Natalia; Rena, Viviana; Genti-Raimondi, Susana; Rivero, Virginia; Magnarelli, Gladis (April 2012). "Effects of the organophosphate insecticides phosmet and chlorpyrifos on trophoblast JEG-3 cell death, proliferation and inflammatory molecule production". Toxicology in Vitro. 26 (3): 406–413. doi:10.1016/j.tiv.2012.01.003. ISSN   1879-3177. PMID   22265773.
  17. ↑ K Al Rawas, Hisham; Al Mawla, Reem; Pham, Thi Yen Nhi; Truong, Dinh Hieu; Nguyen, Thi Le Anh; Taamalli, Sonia; Ribaucour, Marc; El Bakali, Abderrahman; Černušák, Ivan; Dao, Duy Quang; Louis, Florent (2023-12-13). "New insight into environmental oxidation of phosmet insecticide initiated by HO˙ radicals in gas and water - a theoretical study". Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts. 25 (12): 2042–2056. doi:10.1039/d3em00325f. ISSN   2050-7895. PMID   37850503.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.