Permethrin

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Permethrin
Permethrin-2D-skeletal.png
Two-dimensional chemical structure of permethrin
Permethrin MT 20200909.png
Three-dimensional chemical structure of permethrin
Clinical data
Trade names Nix, Rid, Elimite, others
AHFS/Drugs.com Monograph
License data
Routes of
administration 		topical
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Metabolism Insects are more affected by permethrin than humans or dogs because they are unable to metabolise the toxins as quickly as humans and dogs. Cats, although not experiencing the full effect of permethrin, are more sensitive to this toxin. [1]
Identifiers
  • (±)-3-Phenoxybenzyl 3-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropanecarboxylate
CAS Number
PubChem CID
DrugBank
ChemSpider
UNII
KEGG
ChEBI
ChEMBL
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard 100.052.771 OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Chemical and physical data
Formula C21H20Cl2O3
Molar mass 391.29 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
Density 1.19 g/cm3, solid g/cm3
Melting point 34 °C (93 °F)
Boiling point 200 °C (392 °F)
Solubility in water 5.5 x 10−3 ppm, 0.2 [2]  mg/mL (25°C)
  • Cl/C(Cl)=C/C3C(C(=O)OCc2cccc(Oc1ccccc1)c2)C3(C)C
  • InChI=1S/C21H20Cl2O3/c1-21(2)17(12-18(22)23)19(21)20(24)25-13-14-7-6-10-16(11-14)26-15-8-4-3-5-9-15/h3-12,17,19H,13H2,1-2H3
  • Key:RLLPVAHGXHCWKJ-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Permethrin is a medication and an insecticide. [3] [4] As a medication, it is used to treat scabies and lice. [5] It is applied to the skin as a cream or lotion. [3] As an insecticide, it can be sprayed onto outer clothing or mosquito nets to kill the insects that touch them. [4] [6]

Contents

Side effects include rash and irritation at the area of use. [5] Use during pregnancy appears to be safe. [3] It is approved for use on and around people over the age of two months. [3] Permethrin is in the pyrethroid family of medications. [3] It works by disrupting the function of the neurons of lice and scabies mites. [3]

Permethrin was discovered in 1973. [7] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. [8] In 2021, it was the 339th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 100,000 prescriptions. [9]

Uses

Insecticide

Insect incapacitation

Medical use

Permethrin is available for topical use as a cream or lotion. It is indicated for the treatment and prevention in exposed individuals of head lice and treatment of scabies. [14] It has an excellent safety profile; its main drawback is its cost. [15]

For treatment of scabies: Adults and children older than 2 months are instructed to apply the cream to the entire body from head to the soles of the feet. Wash off the cream after 8–14 hours. In general, one treatment is curative. [16] A single application of permethrin is more effective than a single oral dose of ivermectin for scabies. In addition permethrin provides more rapid symptomatic relief than ivermectin. [17] When a second dose of ivermectin is days later, the efficacy between permethrin and ivermectin approach parity. [18]

For treatment of head lice: Apply to hair, scalp, and neck after shampooing. Leave in for 10 minutes and rinse. Avoid contact with eyes. [19]

Mechanism of action

Permethrin acts on the nerve cell membrane to disrupt the sodium channel current by which the polarization of the membrane is regulated. Delayed repolarization and paralysis of the pests are the consequences of this disturbance. [20] [21]

Pest control / effectiveness and persistence

In agriculture, permethrin is mainly used on cotton, wheat, maize, and alfalfa crops. Its use is controversial because, as a broad-spectrum chemical, it kills indiscriminately; as well as the intended pests, it can harm beneficial insects, including honey bees, as well as cats and aquatic life. [22] [23]

Permethrin kills ticks and mosquitoes on contact with treated clothing. A method of reducing deer tick populations by treating rodent vectors involves stuffing biodegradable cardboard tubes with permethrin-treated cotton. Mice collect the cotton for lining their nests. Permethrin on the cotton kills any immature ticks feeding on the mice.[ citation needed ]

Permethrin is used in tropical areas to prevent mosquito-borne disease such as dengue fever and malaria. Mosquito nets used to cover beds may be treated with a solution of permethrin. This increases the effectiveness of the bed net by killing parasitic insects before they are able to find gaps or holes in the net. Personnel working in malaria-endemic areas may be instructed to treat their clothing with permethrin as well.[ citation needed ]

Permethrin is the most commonly used insecticide worldwide for the protection of wool from keratinophagous insects such as Tineola bisselliella . [24]

To better protect soldiers from the risk and annoyance of biting insects, the British [25] and US armies are treating all new uniforms with permethrin. [26]

Permethrin (as well as other long-term pyrethroids) is effective over several months, in particular when used indoors. International studies report that permethrin can be detected in house dust, in fine dust, and on indoor surfaces even years after the application. Its degradation rate under indoor conditions is approximately 10% after 3 months. [27] [28]

Resistance

In Aedes aegypti permethrin resistance is via "knockdown resistance" (kdr) mutations which is common to pyrethroids and DDT. This differs to the most common mechanism of insecticide resistance evolution which is selection for preexisting, low-frequency alleles. García et al. 2009 found that a kdr allele has rapidly spread throughout Mexico and become dominant there. [29]

Adverse effects

Permethrin is moderately toxic if ingested, causing abdominal pain, sore throat, nausea and vomiting. If inhaled, permethrin may cause headache, respiratory irritation, difficulty breathing, dizziness, nausea and vomiting. Inhalation is more likely from aerosols than from vapors from surfaces and clothing, as permethrin has a low vapor pressure and volatilizes slowly. [30]

Topical application of permethrin can cause mild skin irritation, burning and paresthesia. [30] Permethrin has little systemic absorption, and is considered safe for topical use in adults and children over the age of two months. The FDA has assigned it as pregnancy category B. Animal studies have suggested that it may cause endocrine disruption by interfering with estrogenic activity [30] and have shown no effects on fertility or teratogenicity, but studies in humans have not been performed. The excretion of permethrin in breastmilk is unknown, and it is recommended that breastfeeding be temporarily discontinued during treatment. [19] Skin reactions are uncommon. [31] Excessive exposure to permethrin can cause nausea, headache, muscle weakness, excessive salivation, shortness of breath, and seizures. Worker exposure to the chemical can be monitored by measurement of the urinary metabolites, while severe overdose may be confirmed by measurement of permethrin in serum or blood plasma. [32]

Permethrin does not present any notable genotoxicity or immunotoxicity in humans and farm animals, but is classified by the EPA as a likely human carcinogen when ingested, based on reproducible studies in which mice fed permethrin developed liver and lung tumors. [33] An 2018 review failed to link permethrin exposure in humans to cancer. [34]

Pharmacokinetics

Permethrin is a chemical categorized in the pyrethroid insecticide group. [1] The chemicals in the pyrethroid family are created to emulate the chemicals found in the chrysanthemum flower. [1]

Absorption

Absorption of topical permethrin is minimal. One in vivo study demonstrated 0.5% absorption in the first 48 hours based upon excretion of urinary metabolites. [35]

Distribution

Distribution of permethrin has been studied in rat models, with highest amounts accumulating in fat and the brain. [36] This can be explained by the lipophilic nature of the permethrin molecule.[ citation needed ]

Metabolism

Metabolism of permethrin occurs mainly in the liver, where the molecule undergoes oxidation by the cytochrome P450 system, as well as hydrolysis, into non-toxic metabolites. [35]

Excretion

The elimination of permethrin and its metabolites occurs mainly through urinary excretion, but also through feces. In rats, the excretion half-life is 12 hours for plasma and 9 to 23 hours for certain nervous tissue. [30]

Stereochemistry

Permethrin has four stereoisomers (two enantiomeric pairs), arising from the two stereocenters in the cyclopropane ring. The trans enantiomeric pair is known as transpermethrin. (1R,3S)-trans and (1R,3R)-cis enantiomers are responsible for the insecticidal properties of permethrin. [37]

Environment

Permethrin has a half-life of about 40 days in soil, 1–3 weeks on the surface of plants, over 20 days indoors, and 19–27 hours in the water column. [38] Permethrin-contaminated indoor surfaces can be decontaminated with bleach. [39]

History

Permethrin was first made in 1973. [40]

Numerous synthetic routes exist for the production of the DV-acid ester precursor. [41] The pathway known as the Kuraray Process uses four steps. [42] In general, the final step in the total synthesis of any of the synthetic pyrethroids is a coupling of a DV-acid ester and an alcohol. In the case of permethrin synthesis, the DV-acid cyclopropanecarboxylic acid, 3-(2,2-dichloroethenyl)-2,2-dimethyl-, ethyl ester, is coupled with the alcohol, m-phenoxybenzyl alcohol, through a transesterification reaction with base. Tetraisopropyl titanate or sodium ethylate may be used as the base. [42]

The alcohol precursor may be prepared in three steps. First, m-cresol, chlorobenzene, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and cuprous chloride react to yield m-phenoxytoluene. [43] Second, oxidation of m-phenoxytoluene over selenium dioxide provides m-phenoxybenzaldehyde. Third, a Cannizzaro reaction of the benzaldehyde in formaldehyde and potassium hydroxide affords the m-phenoxybenzyl alcohol. [42]

Brand names

In Nordic countries and North America, a permethrin formulation for lice treatment is marketed under trade name Nix, available over the counter. Johnson & Johnson's UK brand Lyclear covers an assortment of different products, mostly non-insecticidal, but a few of which are based on permethrin. [44]

Stronger concentrations of permethrin are used to treat scabies (which embed inside the skin), compared to lice (which remain outside the skin). In the U.S. the more concentrated products such as Elimite are available by prescription only. [45]

Other animals

It is known to be highly toxic to cats, fish and aquatic species with long-lasting effects. [1] [46]

Cats

Permethrin is toxic to cats; however, it has little effect on dogs. [1] [47] [48] Pesticide-grade permethrin is toxic to cats. Many cats die after being given flea treatments intended for dogs, or by contact with dogs having recently been treated with permethrin. [49] In cats it may induce hyperexcitability, tremors, seizures, and death. [50]

Toxic exposure of permethrin can cause several symptoms, including convulsion, hyperaesthesia, hyperthermia, hypersalivation, and loss of balance and coordination. Exposure to pyrethroid-derived drugs such as permethrin requires treatment by a veterinarian, otherwise the poisoning is often fatal. [51] [52] This intolerance is due to a defect in glucuronosyltransferase, a common detoxification enzyme in other mammals, that also makes the cat intolerant to paracetamol (acetaminophen). [53] Based on those observations, the use of any external parasiticides based on permethrin is contraindicated for cats.

Aquatic organisms

Permethrin is listed as a "restricted use" substance by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [54] due to its high toxicity to aquatic organisms, [55] so permethrin and permethrin-contaminated water should be properly disposed of. Permethrin is quite stable, having a half life of 51–71 days in an aqueous environment exposed to light. It is also highly persistent in soil. [56]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scabies</span> Human disease

Scabies is a contagious human skin infestation by the tiny (0.2–0.45 mm) mite Sarcoptes scabiei, variety hominis. The word is from Latin: scabere, lit. 'to scratch'. The most common symptoms are severe itchiness and a pimple-like rash. Occasionally, tiny burrows may appear on the skin. In a first-ever infection, the infected person usually develops symptoms within two to six weeks. During a second infection, symptoms may begin within 24 hours. These symptoms can be present across most of the body or just certain areas such as the wrists, between fingers, or along the waistline. The head may be affected, but this is typically only in young children. The itch is often worse at night. Scratching may cause skin breakdown and an additional bacterial infection in the skin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cypermethrin</span> Chemical compound

Cypermethrin (CP) is a synthetic pyrethroid used as an insecticide in large-scale commercial agricultural applications as well as in consumer products for domestic purposes. It behaves as a fast-acting neurotoxin in insects. It is easily degraded on soil and plants but can be effective for weeks when applied to indoor inert surfaces. It is a non-systemic and non-volatile insecticide that acts by contact and ingestion, used in agriculture and in pest control products. Exposure to sunlight, water and oxygen will accelerate its decomposition. Cypermethrin is highly toxic to fish, bees and aquatic insects, according to the National Pesticides Telecommunications Network (NPTN). It is found in many household ant and cockroach killers, including Raid, Ortho, Combat, ant chalk, and some products of Baygon in Southeast Asia.

Pyrethrum was a genus of several Old World plants now classified in either Chrysanthemum or Tanacetum which are cultivated as ornamentals for their showy flower heads. Pyrethrum continues to be used as a common name for plants formerly included in the genus Pyrethrum. Pyrethrum is also the name of a natural insecticide made from the dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and Chrysanthemum coccineum. The insecticidal compounds present in these species are pyrethrins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piperonyl butoxide</span> Chemical compound

Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) is a pale yellow to light brown liquid organic compound used as an adjuvant component of pesticide formulations for synergy. That is, despite having no pesticidal activity of its own, it enhances the potency of certain pesticides such as carbamates, pyrethrins, pyrethroids, and rotenone. It is a semisynthetic derivative of safrole.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DEET</span> Chemical compound

N,N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide, also called diethyltoluamide or DEET, is the oldest, most effective and most common active ingredient in commercial insect repellents. It is a slightly yellow oil intended to be applied to the skin or to clothing and provides protection against mosquitoes, flies, ticks, fleas, chiggers, leeches, and many other biting insects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyrethrin</span> Class of organic chemical compounds with insecticidal properties

The pyrethrins are a class of organic compounds normally derived from Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium that have potent insecticidal activity by targeting the nervous systems of insects. Pyrethrin naturally occurs in chrysanthemum flowers and is often considered an organic insecticide when it is not combined with piperonyl butoxide or other synthetic adjuvants. Their insecticidal and insect-repellent properties have been known and used for thousands of years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bifenthrin</span> Chemical compound

Bifenthrin is a pyrethroid insecticide. It is widely used against ant infestations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lindane</span> Organochlorine chemical and an isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane

Lindane, also known as gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH), gammaxene, Gammallin and benzene hexachloride (BHC), is an organochlorine chemical and an isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane that has been used both as an agricultural insecticide and as a pharmaceutical treatment for lice and scabies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyrethroid</span> Class of insecticides

A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums. Pyrethroids are used as commercial and household insecticides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mange</span> Type of skin disease caused by parasitic mites

Mange is a type of skin disease caused by parasitic mites. Because various species of mites also infect plants, birds and reptiles, the term "mange", or colloquially "the mange", suggesting poor condition of the skin and fur due to the infection, is sometimes reserved for pathological mite-infestation of nonhuman mammals. Thus, mange includes mite-associated skin disease in domestic mammals, in livestock, and in wild mammals. Severe mange caused by mites has been observed in wild bears. Since mites belong to the arachnid subclass Acari, another term for mite infestation is acariasis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malathion</span> Chemical compound

Malathion is an organophosphate insecticide which acts as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. In the USSR, it was known as carbophos, in New Zealand and Australia as maldison and in South Africa as mercaptothion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ivermectin</span> Medication for parasite infestations

Ivermectin is an antiparasitic drug. After its discovery in 1975, its first uses were in veterinary medicine to prevent and treat heartworm and acariasis. Approved for human use in 1987, it is used to treat infestations including head lice, scabies, river blindness (onchocerciasis), strongyloidiasis, trichuriasis, ascariasis and lymphatic filariasis. It works through many mechanisms to kill the targeted parasites, and can be taken by mouth, or applied to the skin for external infestations. It belongs to the avermectin family of medications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allethrins</span> Class of synthetic chemicals used as insecticides

The allethrins are a group of related synthetic compounds used in insecticides. They are classified as pyrethroids, i.e. synthetic versions of pyrethrin, a chemical with insecticidal properties found naturally in Chrysanthemum flowers. They were first synthesized in the United States by Milton S. Schechter in 1949. Allethrin was the first pyrethroid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benzyl benzoate</span> Chemical compound

Benzyl benzoate is an organic compound which is used as a medication and insect repellent. As a medication it is used to treat scabies and lice. For scabies either permethrin or malathion is typically preferred. It is applied to the skin as a lotion. Typically two to three applications are needed. It is also present in Balsam of Peru, Tolu balsam, and in a number of flowers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deltamethrin</span> Chemical compound

Deltamethrin is a pyrethroid ester insecticide. Deltamethrin plays a key role in controlling malaria vectors, and is used in the manufacture of long-lasting insecticidal mosquito nets; however, resistance of mosquitos and bed bugs to deltamethrin has seen a widespread increase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phenothrin</span> Chemical compound

Phenothrin, also called sumithrin and d-phenothrin, is a synthetic pyrethroid that kills adult fleas and ticks. It has also been used to kill head lice in humans. d-Phenothrin is used as a component of aerosol insecticides for domestic use. It is often used with methoprene, an insect growth regulator that interrupts the insect's biological lifecycle by killing the eggs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cyhalothrin</span> Synthetic pyrethroid used as insecticide

Cyhalothrin is the ISO common name for an organic compound that, in specific isomeric forms, is used as a pesticide. It is a pyrethroid, a class of synthetic insecticides that mimic the structure and properties of the naturally occurring insecticide pyrethrin which is present in the flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium. Pyrethroids such as cyhalothrin are often preferred as an active ingredient in agricultural insecticides because they are more cost-effective and longer acting than natural pyrethrins. λ-and γ-cyhalothrin are now used to control insects and spider mites in crops including cotton, cereals, potatoes and vegetables.

An ectoparasiticide is an antiparasitic drug used in the treatment of ectoparasitic infestations. These drugs are used to kill the parasites that live on the body surface. Permethrin, sulfur, lindane, dicophane, benzyl benzoate, ivermectin and crotamiton are well known ectoparasiticides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Etofenprox</span> Chemical compound

Etofenprox is a pyrethroid derivative which is used as an insecticide. Mitsui Chemicals Agro Inc. is the main manufacturer of the chemical. It is also used as an ingredient in flea medication for cats and dogs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fenpropathrin</span> Chemical compound

Fenpropathrin, or fenopropathrin, is a widely used pyrethroid insecticide in agriculture and household. Fenpropathrin is an ingestion and contact synthetic pyrethroid. Its mode of action is similar to other natural (pyrethrum) and synthetic pyrethroids where in they interfere with the kinetics of voltage gated sodium channels causing paralysis and death of the pest. Fenpropathrin was the first of the light-stable synthetic pyrethroids to be synthesized in 1971, but it was not commercialized until 1980. Like other pyrethroids with an α-cyano group, fenpropathrin also belongs to the termed type II pyrethroids. Type II pyrethroids are a more potent toxicant than type I in depolarizing insect nerves. Application rates of fenpropathrin in agriculture according to US environmental protection agency (EPA) varies by crop but is not to exceed 0.4 lb ai/acre.

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